Science and universities at the XI-XIVth centuries Lesson in a German university of the XIVth century. (painting from Lorenzo de Voleter) Science is opposite to dogma. Dogma is imposed a truth whereas Science is trying to understand phenomenon, and is open to criticism and correction. Scientific results are always comparing to the reality. This definition can be applied today but also back in the XII century. Science in the history is strongly link with philosophy (bts). It could be strange for us living in the XXI century to consider philosophy as a science. However, the first philosopher was doing a sort of science because they tried to explain natural phenomenon by philosophy. During the middle-age, what we called science is about studying the nature. There is not really a clear classification at the middle-age and the Renaissance between the different disciplines in what we called sciences. Theology, logic, mathematics, natural philosophy … The distinction is blurred. A thinker knows a bit of each discipline to be considered as such. Bridges between disciplines are numerous. To clearly understand the medieval logic, we have to understand the place where she is elaborate and teach: the University. The term university appeared in the XI century. One of the first universities appears in Paris in 1200. This corporation of masters and students obtained some privileges from the pope in 1200 and a complete autonomy in 1231. There are 9 universities between the XIII and the XIV century. We can give as other example the University of Oxford in 1249 and the one of Cambridge in 1249. They appear in a rebirth context where the antic knowledge is rediscovered and the Aristotelianism is one of the most important influences. This thirst for knowledge will continue until the Renaissance. Map of the medieval universities. A university is composed into 4 faculties: Theology, Canon law, medicine and arts. The time of studies was from 6 to 15 years. A complete curriculum included a baccalaureate, a bachelor and a master. One of the most important universities was Paris. Her Apogee was from1230 to 1280 with an average of 5 000 students. The question we can ask us here is: How the emergence of the university was to trigger a scientific and intellectual movement in Europe between the XIth and the XIVth century? Our subject is during the XI-XIVth century. This period experienced a cultural momentum in the XIIth century. Europe is really interested in science and it is in progress. Every kind of science was studied. However, some subjects were more important, more studied. Before the XII century, education was based on Platonism. But with this context of reborn, they start to rediscover all the work of Aristotle. In all domains, Aristotle and Averroes, his Arabo-Andalusian commentator was really in the heart of the studies and allowed a deep renewal. The rules of scholasticism were followed. To put it in a nutshell, scholasticism is to consider Nature like a coherent set of phenomena. The way to study was to start by reading texts and then they were discussing them by following strict rules. In theology or in natural philosophy, they comment, argue, dispute…This is the same way to practice for the dialectic art. Europe in science was late compare to the Arab-Muslim civilization. Thinkers tried to explain phenomenon by using logic, reason to catch this late. However, we have to be careful with the word logic because it was more use the intuition than mathematical logic as we know it today. The thought alone is enough for the scholar. In the Middle-age, a scientist used observation and speculation without any care of experimentation. The world of Islam was really taken to model. The Islamic thinkers (As we said, Averroes, Avicenna among others) were highly respected and even schools or universities were built on the Islamic model. Our subject is in a very religious context. So it’s important to understand how science and religion coexist into institutions such as universities. Indeed, The Church is suspicious with regards to these texts. They are threatening for the Christian dogma because of a scientific rationalism. The Church forbade the University of Paris, the study of Aristotle and his comments in 1210. This prohibition is repeated by Gregory IX, the pope, in 1231. Aristotle is condemned by the Bishop of Paris in 1277. But it is quite interesting to note that these measures be repeated many times in so little time. This is because there is a real progress, more or less clandestine, into the first Parisian aristotelianism at the art faculty. The aristotelianism is gaining ground. She enters into the theology faculty thanks to the mendicant order (Franciscan, Dominican…) in 1230- 1250. We could be surprise that religious people are involved into aristotelianism. The reason is that the Church itself, asked to three Master of theology to study, to revise, to rewrite and to purge the works of Aristotle and Averroes. After that the work will be consider as usable. We can consider that there are two different way to think at this period in philosophy. There is the Platoon side and the Aristotle side. This is easier for the Church to follow Platoon idea in general than Aristotelianism idea. For instance, Aristotle said that the universe is eternal. There is a beginning but there is no end. This idea is against what the Bible says. However, Platoon said that there is a beginning at the universe and an end. So that is why the Church are disagree to use the work of Aristotle entirely. One of the Aristotle commentator, Avicenna, also an arabo-andalusian thinker use Platoon to explain Aristotle texts. Indeed, Avicenna tries to put Faith and reason on an equal plan. Averroes is incompatible with Christianity ideas. So the mendicants are not into a “pure” aristotelianism just like the seculars are. They prefer base their study on Avicenna. Some mendicants have a really strong position on the subject and they refuse to have any link between, philosophy and theology. For example, Bonaventure, a Franciscan chief, think this way. On the opposite, Thomas Aquinas from the Dominican order thinks that philosophy can’t be separate from theology. Philosophy has no autonomy. He is like a Christian philosopher. So we have some religious who can reconcile faith and reason, and others who refused to attach an importance to science and reason. There is also a huge opposition between art faculty, which studies every text of Aristotle and integrates totally philosophy to the teaching program, and between the theology faculty which is chilly face to this discipline. To conclude, the middle-age is a very interesting period to study in history of science. Indeed, the philosophers start to rediscovers the Antic texts and it is just before the modern period. The middle-age is a transition between those two parts but it also has particularities. This period is really different from ours, or from the modern period which is based on Newton or Galileo. Middle-age followed others schemes. This is obvious that Middle-age announce the Renaissance and this extraordinary intellectual movement in science. The first universities had a essential role to play in this movement. But we have to keep in mind that during the Middle-age, the knowledge was exclusive for a restraint numerous of people. They thought that science had to stay a secret, away for the common people. The universities are really extended in all Europe only at the end of our period, in XIVth century. So this knowledge was real, but limited. This is not comparable to the Renaissance. And as we saw, the Christianity, which was just beginning to strengthen, reinforce its power, was divided about science. According to some theologian, Nature is a creation of God so this is important to study it and to be amazed. Which is why we have some great thinker just like Thomas Aquinas or Saint Augustin who are religious people. In another hand, some mendicants, sometimes the pope himself, were really threatened by science and the contradictions between scientific results and the Bible. This period is about transformation of science. Thanks to the universities, (Paris, Oxford), science change its face, became more open even if it was still link with religious dogma, philosophy and often astrology. Bibliography Working Tool GAUVARD C., Dictionnaire du Moyen âge, Paris, 2002 GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Paris, 1998, 622 p. The Oxford English dictionary, Second edition, Oxford, 1991. General Books CHELENI J., Histoire religieuse de l’Occident médiéval, Paris, 1991, 661 p. LE GOFF J., Les intellectuels au Moyen-âge, Paris, 2000, 245 p. Books focus on the Subject GUENÉE S., Les universités françaises des origines à la révolution, Paris, 1982, 314 p. MINOT J., Histoire des universités française, Paris, 1991, 127 p. VERGER J., Les université au Moyen âge, Paris, BTS,1992, 150 p. GILSON E., La philosophie de Bonaventure, Paris, 1924, 615 p. Articles VANDIJK W.C, « Université », in Encyclopaedia Universalis BOQUIN D., « L’argumentation au moyen âge », in Science pour la vie, Octobre-décembre 2005, n°48. CELEYRETTE G., “Les sciences dans l’occident médiéval”, in Utopies, n°69, 2006, 46-53 p. Bibliography : Translation Working Tool GAUVARD C., Middle-age dictionary, Paris, 2002 GERHARDS A., Historical dictionary of religious order, Paris, 1998, 622 p. The Oxford English dictionary, Second edition, Oxford, 1991. General Books CHELENI J., Religious history of medieval Europe, Paris, 1991, 661 p. LE GOFF J., The Middle-age thinkers, Paris, 2000, 245 p. Books focus on the Subject GUENÉE S., French universities: From the origin to the French revolutionary, Paris, 1982, 314 p. MINOT J., History of the French universities, Paris, 1991, 127 p. VERGER J., Universities of Middle-age, Paris, 1992, 150 p. GILSON E., Bonaventure philosophy, Paris, 1924, 615 p. Articles VANDIJK W.C, « University », in Encyclopaedia Universalis BOQUIN D.,  « Argumentation in the Middle-age », in Science pour la vie, Octobre-décembre 2005, n°48. CELEYRETTE G., “Science in Europe in the Middle-age”, in Utopies, n°69, 2006, 46-53 p. GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Op. Cit. p. 593 GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Op. Cit. p. 595

Organizational behavior and management in Griffith College, Dublin

Introduction
First of all, in order to have a good understanding of this subject, it is necessary to agree with some definitions. Indeed even if these words do not seem to be particularly difficult the term of “organizational culture” can appear a bit woolly. (Robbins and Judge 2007) p573 an organization is “a consciously social unit, composed of two or more people, that function on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goal”. As regards the term of culture it is describe as “group of elements which makes the difference between a society, a social group, than another society or another group”. Finally an organization culture is : “a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. “
In order to simplify the wording we can say that toward this assignment we will see which group of elements is shared by the members of Griffith College which can make a difference between this organization from another.
So as to answer this question the writer will try to diagnose the organizational culture of Griffith College of Dublin using two different models, Cameron and Quinn’s those and Handy’s those. That is to say the analysis of the following : The Clan Culture, The Adhocracy Culture, The Hierarchy Culture and The Market Culture. Afterward the writer will analyze the GCD culture with Handy’s culture models using the Power Culture model and the Task Culture model which according to the writer are the most relevant to analyze GCD.
GCD and Cameron and Quinn’s Cultures models
Griffith College Dublin an adhocracy culture
An adhocracy culture is defined as “a dynamic entrepreneurial, and creative place to work. People stick their necks out and take risks.”
We could argue that GCD is based on an adhocracy culture, indeed at the beginning GCD need to be very creative and entrepreneurial to launch its business. But not only at the beginning, we will see that the will to make GCD more dynamic and innovative will stay in the culture of this enterprise.
Indeed, at the beginning Diarmuid was able to be innovator, seeing a business opportunity and he took the risk to give up his consultant job to involve himself completely in his project. This type of culture is fitted to enterprises which are developing their potential particularly at the beginning because the organization is growi

Value change in western democracies

Introduction:

In the recent French cantonal elections, some members of left wing and right wing parties proposed an alliance against the rising Front National. This proposition was based on the fact that, according to these politicians, they shared certain values that went against the values defended by the FN, and thus they could overcome their differences to make sure that their values prevailed. This can make one wonder what “values” are, this notion being so strong that it can bring the idea of a bridge between right and left. The word comes from the French “valoir”, meaning being worth, and the word “value” does refer to the measure of something’s worth. In this case, “value” refers to an important concept that has so much value to us that it is simply called a value, as an ethic. Examples of values are freedom or wanting to maintain order in the nation. Our values depend on a certain number of factors, such as our needs (a person that doesn’t eat often will for example have for value to always finish his plate, whether he/she likes it or not).

Due to this dependence, it is logical that if the needs change, the values change too. A change in the society can also induce a value change, which can have repercussions back on the society. In the past centuries, Western democracies have gone through several decisive changes: industrialization, democratization and several wars, with such changes for consequences. In the past century, the Western democracies have notably suffered two World Wars, before entering a period of prosperity. We can thus wonder if the values in Western democracies have changed during this period. If so, what are the processes that led to this change and their repercussions?

It so happens that a value change did occur since 1950. To explain this value change in Western democracies, we will first analyze its nature, by extracting from Ronald Inglehart’s work the reasons and the explanations for this variation (I), and then we will prove that it led to three different processes, democratization, globalization and individualization (II).

From materialism to post-materialism: an explanation of value change
After the Second World War, the Western industrialized democracies have known a period of safety on their territories (no more wars since then on Western democracies soil) and a period of relative economic prosperity, know in France as the “Glorious Thirty”. Ronald Inglehart, an American political scientist, shows in The Silent revolution, 1977, and in Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, 1990, that this period was a turning-point in the western values and initiated a value change. We will first describe the causes and the nature of this change, before evoking its consequences, and the criticisms made to Inglehart’s study.

Description of the value change
Ronald Inglehart defines two main categories of values in Western democracies: materialist values and post-materialist values. The value change occurring is a transfer of the value majority: in 1950, the majority of the population was materialist, whereas nowadays, according to the predictions made in Culture shift, it is more post-materialist.

Inglehart’s theory of value change is based on two hypotheses. The first one is called the “scarcity hypothesis”. It is based on the works by Abraham Maslow, published in A Theory of human motivation, 1943. Maslow establishes a hierarchy of needs, according to the supply available for each need. First of all, we tend to care for our physiological needs (such as food) and for our safety (the physiological needs have a slightly higher priority than the safety needs). When these needs are fulfilled, we can then search for love, belonging, self-esteem, and intellectual and aesthetic satisfaction, which are called self-actualization needs. Inglehart’s hypothesis, based on this theory by Maslow, is that “an individual’s priorities reflect the socioeconomic environment”: if an individual’s priorities are at the bottom of the Maslow hierarchy, it means that the socioeconomic environment isn’t very profitable. On the contrary, in periods of socioeconomic prosperity, the individual’s priorities tend to go to the top of the Maslow hierarchy.

The second hypothesis is that of “socialization”. Inglehart believes that the values of a generation do not evolve: the evolution is on the generation-to-generation level, but the values of one generation remain stable throughout time, withstanding the socioeconomic changes that can happen during a life-time. This is due to the fact that our values come from our education and our pre-adult life, and that they thus remain anchored in our minds: our values are the expression of the socioeconomic situation in our childhood. Concretely, a person that has suffered from poverty during her childhood will always be inclined to be careful with her expanses, even in the case of prosperity. It is empirically proven by the surveys performed by Inglehart in the Culture shift. With these two hypotheses, Inglehart is able to describe the value change.
He defines the materialist values as based on the lower level of the hierarchy of needs, whereas the post-materialist values are the reflection of the higher level of the hierarchy of needs. In short, the materialist values emphasis on material well-being and on safety, whereas post-materialist values focus on the quality of life. The change is on the generational level, the younger generations being more post-materialist than the older generations.

Why do we observe a value change since 1950, going from materialism to post-materialism?  As Inglehart simply states it, “people are safe and they have enough to eat” . According to Maslow, this leads to a change in the priorities, and thus in the values. The economic and technological development, that allows the satisfaction of physiological needs for an increasingly large proportion of population, the “distinctive cohort experiences”, meaning the difference in experiences between generations (such as the absence of war), the rising levels of education, the expansion of mass communications and the changes in occupational structure (growth of the middle class and of the tertiary sector) since 1950 are the system-level changes that implied the value change.

This value change, according to the socialization hypothesis, can only be observed from generation to generation. It is empirically proven that the younger generations are more post-materialistic than the older generations. There is also a link between education and post-materialism: the more educated the generation is and the more post-materialist it will be. The change in values is studied by a survey led at different periods, in western democracies such as France, Italy or the United States. The main survey, establishing the difference between materialism and post-materialism, was as such:
“If you had to choose among the following things, which are the two that seem most desirable to you?
- Maintaining order in the nation
- Giving the people more say in important political decisions
- Fighting rising prices
- Protecting freedom of speech” 
In green are the materialist values, whereas the post-materialist values are in blue. Most of the respondents to the survey chose the corresponding options together. With the comparison over time, Inglehart was thus able to describe the generational value change from materialism to post-materialism.

Consequences of the value change and criticisms on Inglehart’s studies
Inglehart works on the “bath-tub” model, an adaptation of the Coleman (1999) and Esser (1993) linkage of levels of analysis:  Ronald Inglehart starts by noticing the value change on the macro level (society), and explains its consequences on the micro level (individual), which affects the behaviors of the individuals. When aggregating these new behaviors (meso level), it is possible to observe the consequences of the initial macro level change back on the macro level. Thus, after explaining the original system-level changes, let us look at the individual-level changes. The global change from materialism to post-materialism induces a number of changes in the individual behaviors: their interests in political issues change (they become interested in the protection of the environment, in the quality of life or in the role of women), their support for national institutions decreases in the favor of international institutions, and their style of political participation also evolves from elite-directed to elite-challenging.

This last change means that instead of just supporting one representative or another, the people actually act in the policy-making and take a part in the important decisions. This is notable with the fact that post-materialists tend to be liberal, whereas materialists tend to be democrat. There is thus a liberalization of the politics, noticeable with the suppression of the death penalty or the legalization of abortion in most of these countries. Back on the macro level, this has some effects on the system: Inglehart notices a change in prevailing political issues, with an increasing of “life-style” issues, a change in the social conflict, with a relative decline of social class conflict (this conflict has been replaced by a conflict between shareholders and employees, Fligstein and Shin, 2007) and an increasing secularization, meaning the loosening of the religious grip on society. We can thus observe a certain number of consequences on the system-level caused by the value change initiated by the socioeconomic situation after World War II.

Inglehart’s work is based on numerous empirical researches, namely surveys all around Europe and the United States. The Culture shift was enhanced by new researches, in comparison to the Silent revolution. This work is thus a solid ground to understand the value change that has occurred in Western democracies since 1950. A number of criticisms have yet been formulated on this work. Etienne Schweisguth formulates a critic on the definition of post-materialism by Inglehart: post-materialism is defined as non-material, yet Inglehart links it directly to democratic-liberalism, whereas non-material values also exist in autocratic regimes. For Schweisguth, Inglehart has thus forgotten an important part of the problem.

In our point of view, this criticism has to be moderated by the fact that Inglehart only studies Western industrialized democracies, which do not include any autocracies: in this context, this omission is understandable. Scott Flanagan praises the work on the differences between materialism and post-materialism but disagrees on the fact that there has only been one value change from autocracy/materialism to democratic-liberalism/post-materialism: for him, autocracy and materialism are two independent variables that do not regroup. However, these critiques never contest the global value change result, and thus the change from materialist to post-materialist seems to be well established.
The social economic growth shown during the change to a post materialism society led to different processes, which generate a model of common values on the western industrialized countries…

Typology of the value change in Western industrialized countries
Different processes such as “democratization” have been related to the theory of human development and corroborated by globalization. At the same time was observed an individualization of moral values.

Democratization explained on the human development
Welzel first proposed the concept of human development via the economic, cultural and institutional changes and summarized them into a common theme. This theme was the social practice of human choice. Human development theory stipulates that people choosing what they want should be common practice in societies. We can measure this through different components such as: civic resources, emancipative values and democratic liberties.

Firstly, by civic resources, Wetzel means people’s material, intellectual, and social resources. Modernization has been an incentive for people’s civic resources (material means), social opportunities and intellectual skills, influenced by the growth of the modernization process. In this way, people are more able to follow their own preferences. Also the change of values from the conformist value to the emancipative value contributed to the human development.

The evolution of self-expression according to Wetzel was generated by the values of empowerment and emancipation, which then contributed to human development. Conformists’ values place the collective needs over the needs of the individual whilst emancipative values push for self-expression and leads people to make decisions individually, even if they contrast with the needs and ideals of the whole.  Democratic liberties are necessary in order to allow people to have the freedom of “self-expression”, meaning the ability for an individual to “bloom”. The author made an interesting distinction between “honest democracies” and “corrupted” ones. So according to him, codifying democratic liberties is not enough. An “honest government”, according to Welzel, is proved by the absence of corrupted governance.

With an honest government, democratic liberties are available whilst in a corrupted government, “the sheer legal codification of democratic liberties does not guarantee people any real freedom if power holders are not committed to the principles of honest government” . It means that having fundamental rights registered and guaranteed by a Constitution or an official text doesn’t lead to a real self-expression practice. The example of Singapore could illustrate that idea. The country has a low democracy score but a high honesty score, and thus couldn’t afford democratic liberties (figure 2 page 266).
The theories proposed by Welzel are represented in a diagram (triangular nexus of human development that will be shown during the presentation, p.271). In this point of view democracy is an institutional setting. The links between the three components is demonstrated in the triangular nexus.

Western values evolution with the globalization
Globalization played a crucial role on the circulation of western values but also influenced a cultural value orientation. The easiest way to define globalization today is by the increase of a huge flow of capital, goods, services and information. The public opinion thus does not see that globalization is also a political, legal and cultural exchange. The European Union is a good example of this side of globalization. From 1980 to 2002, a huge evolution happened. Based on a partnership between nation States, “Europe today is more united and integrated than it has ever been in its history” explained Yilmaz Esmer. The economic growth of course leads to the need of a competitive Europe, but cultural and political values make the union stronger and allow its stabilization into the years.

On the other hand, the main goal of the author is also to clarify the truth about the emerging global culture and its American origins. He also intends to give an answer to what he calls “McDonaldization”. The first point is to say that values, due to their dependence on economic, political and technological structures, will logically converge. From this, it is possible to identify two different areas of convergence. Firstly, there is a convergence on the institutional level as most of the nations adopted similar patterns. Thus Inkeles explained in 1998 that “the second realm of convergence involves the movement of national populations away from whatever had been their diverse indigenous cultural patterns and toward the adoption of attitudes, values and modes of daily behavior that constitute the elements of a more or less common world culture.

In this process, almost every aspect of life is influenced, and in many instances profoundly changed”. Unlike other theorists, Taylor thinks that actually, the impact of modernization is not an acultural process. Indeed, “the transformative power of modern institutions is so great that the response of the people to them will be very much alike regardless of the population’s cultural starting point or the larger socioeconomic context in which they are located” . What we can’t deny from these two points is that globalization will definitely be synonymous of significant change. It can thus be admitted at this point that different investigations with trusted data and analysis proved that western countries have known an evolution in their values. The values concerning religiosity, interpersonal trust, marriage and family, and tolerance to the minorities and the gay population were the most concerned by this change.
To sum up the idea of globalization, the theory is mostly criticized because of the bad influence it has on the Third World today, but history has demonstrated that globalization urged totalitarian states to take steps forward on the democratic way.
If globalization leads to a cultural value orientation, some values create a distinction between western industrialized countries, especially between Europe and American countries. Neil Nevitte and Christopher Cochrane evoke individualization. This theory refers to the dissociation of human values from traditional institutions, such as family, work, politics and religion.

The decline of religion shows actually the differences between American and European patterns. Indeed, the level of religiosity is quite stable in North America since 1980, whereas the European public’s level of religiosity declined in seven countries.  In this case, findings actually showed that secularism might be more similar to religiosity than to the absence of religiosity. For example in 1981 “secular Europeans were far more permissive in their moral outlooks than secular Americans”, explains the author of the article. This means that besides a decline of religiosity, secularism is more than a natural fact and has become a value.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, we have shown that a value change did happen in Western industrialized countries. It led to a change from materialism to post-materialism. This value change induced three processes, which also had an impact on the cultural value orientation, that is to say, globalization, democratization and individualization. Moreover, we can link the actual economic conditions, following the 2008 economic crisis, to the theory of value change. Indeed, they are obviously influencing the values on the political field: some countries, because of the economic crisis, are getting back to their old values and looking for conservatism by electing extreme-right parties (Sweden). Others are taking a different path, showing a new value orientation, and electing ecologist parties (Germany). The value change is anyway, from a generation to another, intimately linked to the socioeconomic conditions, so a future challenge.

Bibliography:

BERG-SCHLOSSER, Dirk, “Comment on Welzel, Inglehart and Klingemann’s Theory of human development: A cross-cultural analysis”, European Journal of Political Research 42 (3), pp. 381-386.

FLANAGAN, Scott and LEE, Aie-Rie, “The New Politics, Culture Wars, and The Authoritarian-Libertarian Value Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies”, Comparative Political Studies, 2003 36: 235

FLANAGAN Scott and INGLEHART, Ronald, “Value change in industrial societies”, The American political science review,  Vol. 81, No. 4 (Dec., 1987), pp. 1289-1319

FLIGSTEIN, N. and SHIN, T., “Shareholder Value and the Transformation of the U.S. Economy, 1984-2000 ?”, Sociological Forum, Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2007

INGLEHART, Ronald, The Silent Revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.

INGLEHART, Ronald, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.

“Measuring and mapping cultures: 25 years of comparative surveys” special issue of Comparative Sociology 5 (2/3), 2006, pp. 105-290.

SCHWEISGUTH Étienne. “Le post-matérialisme revisité: R. Inglehart persiste et signe”, Revue française de science politique, 47 (5), 1997.

TRANTER, Bruce and WESTERN, Mark “Overstating Value Change: Question Ordering in the Post-material Values Index”, European Sociological Review 26 (5), 2010, pp. 571–583

WELZL, Christian, INGLEHART, Ronald and KLINGEMANN, Hans-Dieter, “The Theory of Human Development: A cross-cultural analysis”, European Journal of Political Research 42 (3), pp. 341-379.

 INGLEHART, Ronald, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990
 INGLEHART, Ronald, The Silent revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977, page 23

 INGLEHART, Ronald, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990
 INGLEHART, Ronald, The Silent revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977, page 22

 INGLEHART, Ronald, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990
 INGLEHART, Ronald, The Silent revolution, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977, page 28

 WELZEL, Christian,  “Democratization in human development perspective”, in “Measuring and mapping cultures: 25 years of comparative surveys” special issue of Comparative Sociology 5 (2/3), 2006
 WELZEL, Christian,  “Democratization in human development perspective”, in “Measuring and mapping cultures: 25 years of comparative surveys” special issue of Comparative Sociology 5 (2/3), 2006, pp.266-268
 ESMER, Yilmaz, “Globalization, “McDonaldization” and Values: Quo Vadis?”, in “Measuring and mapping cultures: 25 years of comparative surveys” special issue of Comparative Sociology 5 (2/3), 2006, p.186
 INKELES, 1998, quoted by ESMER, Yilmaz
 INKELES, 1998, quoted by ESMER, Yilmaz
 NEVITTE, Neil & COCHRANE, Christopher, “Individualization in Europe and America: Connecting Religious and Moral Values”, in “Measuring and mapping cultures: 25 years of comparative surveys” special issue of Comparative Sociology 5 (2/3), 2006, p.220

Introduction
« Art always has been and always will be important to humans » (p.xxi)1 says
Cynthia Freeland, professor of philosophy at the Houston University. This sentence,
announced as a universal truth, shows that art remains strongly essential for human
beings. It is also assured that everybody knows the importance of art for mankind. Art
appeared at the very moment when human beings were able to act. For ages, it has been
developed, even before written language. Ancient cave-wall paintings illustrate the
importance of creativity or simply of art for human beings. These primitive creations
evolved through times, and nowadays art takes so many forms making rise a countless
number of questions about art. In considering its evolution and the diversity of ways in
which art appears today, the value of art is at the heart of many current debates.
Anyone is conscious that art is vital for men, but conceptions, theories,
considerations, appreciations, valuation, or simply, the definition alighted on art are
strongly different from one person to another. Thus, according to the diversity of artworks
existing today and in face of Progress, we can try to answer the following question : what is
art today? Past theories of art are nowadays revisited in the context of Contemporary Art,
which radically transformed art codes. According to William Rubin, director of the
Museum of Modern Art in New York, « there is no single definition of art »2 and the
historian Thomas McEvilley argues that today « more or less anything can be designated as
art”3. In this way, does anybody today can be an artist? Does each work presented as art
can be really considered as such? What is an artwork? It seems that focusing on past
theories is currently impossible because of the radical evolution of art through times.
Finding a definition for art has always been a crucial problem, as Paul Gauguin tried
with his very last essay What is Art?. In this book, the artist explains that art refers to
something skilfully created by artists. However, artists also require to be defined to
understand the value dedicated to art. Nevertheless, these attempts of definitions are
limited to a plurality of conceptions, challenging the general public perceptions and
philosophers, psychologists and critics theories. Besides, defining what is a work of art is
1 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
2 What is art? What is an artist? Retrieved from http://www.arthistory.sbc.edu/artartists/artartiststoday.html
3 Ibid.
1
definitely difficult in the sense that each work is peculiar, coming from very different kinds
of arts (music or painting for examples). In this way, it seems so hard to give a material
characterization or a physical description (based upon several criteria) of a real work of art.
Thus, is it possible to explain today the difference between a child doodle and a famous
French impressionist painting? Equally, can we say what makes an Art Brut “doodle” or
the Yves Klein Blue Monochrome or again a Johannes Vermeer painting, as a work of art?
However, our world has become a very visual one, making art as more than ever all
around us, and rising the need of understanding what the mankind means by art. At the
same time, many works are commonly admitted as artworks. Hence, the art world is
obviously tied to standards which define what is a real work of art, while it seems that
there is no single answer to what art means. Even if not everyone would agree with one
common definition of art, it is interesting to determine upon what criteria is based the
recognition of a work as art. Then, one question has to be answered : How can we
recognize a work of art? Does anything can be art? Or, simply, what is art?
To answer efficiently this problem, we’ll, firstly, present earlier theories of art, in
comparison to my own conception of it, then, we’ll try to show what is an artist, in ending
this first part by presenting the emergence of Contemporary art which shattered the art
world ; secondly, we’ll try to explain the evolution that art knew through ages, and the
recent establishment of globalization and its impact upon art and its definition ; finally, in
a third part, we’ll depict the recent theories of art by giving the example of Street Art, in
order to finally expose what can be considered as art today.
2
To understand what is art it is fundamental to analyze past theories, their
meaning and their value today. In order to give a relevant explanation, I would like to
present my own definition and contemporary visions of art, because the comparison
between them and illustrious, conclusive, consented theories, can help to understand
what has been art all along centuries and what is art today.
To try to provide a definition of what is art, it is primordial to, first of all, explore
theories, and then, to try to apply those to current times.
To start we can say that human beings has always tried to give a definition to art, in
order to become able to say if anything, especially in Contemporary Art, can be regarded as
art or not.
According to me, art is about creations requiring imagination, creativity, certain
tastes, inventiveness, improvisation, ingeniousness, inspiration, personality, disposition,
soul, and freedom. Art is able to reveal talented and brilliant people, because it is, for me,
the better way to express yourself, to convey messages, beliefs, feelings, ideas and
creativity. I think that art is also powerful, in the sens that it is as old as the mankind, and
because it remains so important for men. It is equally something able to make rise passion,
emotions and feelings such as admiration, rapture or joy. As Cynthia Freeland argues, « art
always has been and always will be important to humans [...] providing insights and joy »
(p.xxi)4. For me, art can arouse interests, vocations, enthusiasm, happiness, wonderment,
and can excite senses. Besides, I argue that nothing else than art can move so intensely
human beings. Art provides entertainment, offering infinite pleasures and discoveries tu
humans. It can be regarded as a kind of apart world, a refuge for reflection or inspiration in
the tumultuous world around us. Because passion and emotions are vital for me, I see art
as definitely unique and indispensable. Finally, I believe that art develops human opinions
or their critical minds, and it constitutes one of the foundations of cultures : for me, art can
give to human beings knowledges, observational skills, insights into history and analytical
thinking, that other universes or human activities are not able to.
4 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
3
Trying to provide a definition of art, by using my own conception of it, would be just
subjective, so restrictive and definitely insufficient. Personal conceptions of art are
important, because each one appreciates art in its own and gives to artworks special values.
Nevertheless, art seems to have standards which define a work as art. What are these
standards? How do they define art and artists? Can we consider them as right and
legitimate? Can these theories be applied to contemporary artworks?
Among the most famous paintings, La Joconde of Leonardo Da Vinci is a good
illustration of the difficulty for human beings to find a definition to art. Indeed, this
renowned work had not always received the same consideration as today. The canvas
achieved a real glory in 1809, when it had been exposed at The Louvre, in Paris. Before, the
painting was totally ignored and unknown. Thus, the face of Mona Lisa earned an
international fame in 1809, and that proved the evolution through ages of theories,
considerations about art and the criteria which define a work as art. In this way, it seems
that the XIXth century presented criteria for a work of art, which have given to La Joconde
the status of masterpiece.
If art has been seen only as a technical in antiquity conceptions, since the XVIIIth
century philosophers never stop to show their continuous interest for art. First of all, many
theories exist, proposing as much as different points of view, and several of them have a
strong significance in the art universe. Theories such as epistemology or ontology are
renowned in art, but some others took a real relevance and acquired a fundamental
influence upon the art world. Hence, theories of Plato, Hume, Kant, Hegel, Tolstoy and
Dewey constitute the best examples of historically influential art definitions. Famous
philosophers’ theories, such as Of the Standard of Taste of Hume, or What is Art? of
Tolstoy tried to demonstrate what made a creation as a work of art. When philosophers
started to develop theories about Art, the idea put forward was that art imitates nature. Art
was regarded as an imitation of what existed. According to Plato or Ciceron, art is an
illusion and a tool for human instruction and knowledge. For Ciceron, art is inferior to
nature and is perceived as second compared to it because it is its a rival. For these
philosophers, art can exist only as a copy, that Stendhal explained by using the example of
literature : “a novel is a mirror”5. Additionally, according to Aristotle’s theory, art is a
technical which imitates nature, but it is also a tool for the improvement of reality. Ciceron
and Schopenhauer developed the idea that art is also a tool for knowledge and a stage
5 Stendhal, Le Rouge et le Noir. Dir. Michel Crouzet. Ed. Lgf. Janvier 1972.
4
within Education : “a work of art is only a way used to improve knowledges of the idea
[which] constitutes the aesthetic pleasure”6.
Theories of art started to become important when Plato tried to explain why art is
related to beauty, and not solely technical. According to him, beauty is tied to truth, and he
spoke about “the experience of beauty”7. Plato explained this experience by demonstrating
that the beauty of bodies is linked with the kindness of souls, which corresponds to the
truth of sciences. In this way, for Plato, the experience of art can be theorized as a science
because of the link between beauty, kindness and truth : beauty is an objective reality
proposing an experience to the public by showing the beauty around him.
Then, since the XVIIIth century, philosophers started to speak about a
consciousness of beauty within human subjectivity. In this way, beauty acquired a new
meaning : it can come under individual sensitivity. Even if personal emotions cannot
constitute the bases of the consideration of beauty, philosophers included new notions in
their theories. Thus, this period is marked by the insertion of new ideas such as “taste” and
“aesthetics”. Cynthia Freeland explains that there was « standard of taste which [was]
universal [but also] artistic universals »(p172)8. Hence, according to Kant, beauty is the
result of a paradox : beauty is what universally pleased to people, without any concept,
meaning that no rule or mathematic explanation can define beauty. Regardless, rules exist
in art and style, but they are not sufficient to justify beauty. The notion of universality
refers to the revelation of beauty, because it implies that anybody judges something
beautiful, even if objectivity is put aside. In this theory, something that we judge beautiful
requires to activate our faculties, by making them play “in unison” and making beauty as
an harmony inside us9. According to Kant, this “miracle”, implies human skills such as
“sensitivity”, “imagination” or “reason”. It can also occur thanks to the mime of nature :
when a work of art is accomplished, it seems to be necessary to humans and no detail of it
can be changed10.
Taking up the idea of Plato, Kant also spoke about art in terms of aesthetic
experience, and added the notion of freedom. Indeed, accomplished works of art require to
mime the creative will of humans. Then, Hume completed Kant’s theory in underlining the
fact that art is above all based on ‘taste’ and ‘beauty’. As Cynthia Freeland explains, for
6 Schopenhauer, Le monde comme Volonté et comme Représentation. Ed. PUF. 1966. p.497
7 Richard Dufour, Plotinus: A Bibliography 1950–2000, Ed. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 2002.
8 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
9 Alain Renaut. Introduction à la Critique de la faculté de juger, Aubier, 1995
10 Ibid.
5
Hume and Kant « taste [corresponds to the] agreement about which authors and artworks
are the best », creating a kind of « consensus » (p.9)11. Hume also developed a theory about
art and aesthetics judgment, using human thoughts and emotions. This theory is often
called Theory of taste and beauty. Hume considered the natural capacity of taste as
fundamental for human beings (as an ability), to make moral and aesthetics judgments.
Cynthia Freeland details these theories by pointing that for Hume and Kant, taste is « a
refined ability to perceive quality in a work [of art]»(p.9)12. Additionally, Hegel also
developed a theory about art, its production and beauty. For him, beauty occurs in human
creations because nothing from nature can be more beautiful than something made by an
individual. Something natural is nonvolunteer, whereas a human work is wise. For Hegel,
beauty only can be a human production because it requires to previously think about it.
This theory also means that art is the best way for human beings to create beauty.
Thus, for these theorists, the only way to characterize art is to look inside the
experience of a work of art. For instance, Kant argued that a work is art because it takes a
significance through the look of the audience. A work is art when somebody is looking at it.
Each individual looks at a work in its own, interprets it, or tries to understand it, giving to
the artwork a special value and artistic interest. For Kant « we label an object beautiful
because it promotes an internal harmony or ‘free play’ of our mental faculties ; we call
something ‘beautiful’ when it elicits this pleasure »(Ibid. p.12) and that « for Kant, the
aesthetic is experienced when a sensuous object stimulates our emotions, intellect and
imagination » (Ibid. p.14)13.
In addition, by publishing What is Art?, Tolstoy appeared as an other philosopher
who marked the theorization of art. First of all, his conception, based on aesthetics,
describes the criteria that exactly define a work of Art. According to him, art must create an
emotion to the public. For Tolstoy, this emotional link between the artist and the audience
is crucial. As Cynthia Freeland explains, for him « an artist’s chief job is to express and
communicate emotions »(p.155)14. Emotion is the primordial condition for regarding a
work as art. Tolstoy argued that a real artwork requires the ability of gathering and uniting
people through communication, which is possible only when the work is clear.
Communication refers to the clear, sincere, singular and authentic message, focused on
emotions, conveyed by the work. In Tolstoy’s theory, genuineness is also a crucial
component of any work of art.
11 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art?Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
6
For him, the concept of art implies any human activity because a real artwork transmits
past experienced feelings, that he called “external facts”. In this book, the writer described
all the qualities that a work needs to be considered as art. Added to genuineness, another
criterion is fundamental : a real artwork must foster feelings of universal brotherhood,
while a bad art inhibits such feelings.
Besides, Tolstoy thought that any good art contains a Christian message, because
Christianity teaches an absolute brotherhood of all men, and nothing else can play this
role. Finally, according to Tolstoy, art reproduces past models. Hence, this notion implies
that contemporary works of art don’t transmit sincere messages or expressions. Tolstoy
explained it by the fact that a contemporary work cannot be tied to the most enlightened
cultural ideals of the community in which the contemporary artist evolves. Indeed, for him,
a real artwork has to unify people in embracing crucial values of the society in order to
preserve its tradition of art.
Theorization of art evolved a lot through times and new ideas about what is art
emerged in the XVIIIth century. Many philosophers and artists proposed a new
conception: art represents without using imitation. For these philosophers, the role of art
is to express the superiority of mind and nature. Art can have a short link with reality
without copy or imitate it. In this way, art doesn’t imitate anymore, it symbolizes by
making things and facts visible. At this moment, art became superior to nature and eternal
because it is different from the evanescent human existence. Art appeared at this moment
as a pure reality, able to delight and move people. For instance, famous artists and
philosophers, such as Hegel and Baudelaire, supported this idea. The poet expressed
virulently the idea that imitation is opposed to a fundamental component of art which is
imagination : “it is useless and tiresome to represent what exists, because what exists
doesn’t satisfied me [...] nature is ugly, and I prefer the monsters of ma fantasy to the
positive crudeness”15.
With these new ideas, perceptions of art eveolved. Nietzche and Klee explained that
art makes things visible, and that art must embellish life by concealing or re-interpreting
ugly and painful things of life. At the beginning of the XIXth century theories showed that
nature is not the referent of art anymore, and that the function of art is to put ideas into
sensitivity. For instance, Reverdy explained that poetry is a “magical act of transmutation
of reality”16, that Kandinsky defined as an internal and spiritual beauty constituting the
15 Baudelaire. Exposition universelle de 1855. Ed. La Pleiade, tome 2, 1976, 9587.
16 Luc Decaunes. Entretiens sur les lettres et les arts, numéro spécial « Hommage à Pierre Reverdy », Rodez, 1961
7
artistic necessity : “the most modern musicians, such as Debussy, reproduce spiritual
impressions [...] and change them in spiritual images [...] purely musical”17). During this
century, as Heidegger showed, art is more about reality or the creation of it, than nature.
Oscar Wilde for instance wrote that “art invented London fogs“18.
Later, art was defined as something able to transform human perception of the
world. Fancastel explained that the aim of art is not to copy the universe, but consists in
the exploration of the world in order to inform people in a new way19. Famous artists of this
period supported this idea, such as Proust : “thanks to art, instead of seeing one world [...]
we can see [our world] enriched and multiplied”20. He pointed that there are as much
worlds around us as original artists. Klee also showed that the artist is the one who makes
us see what we cannot perceive naturally21, and Merleau-Ponty explained that we look at
what the artist proposes in order to see something visible, which was inaccessible for our
vision before22.
The role of the artist also needed to be defined, through ages, as Cynthia Freeland
points : « [...]questions about artists : who are they, and what makes them
special?»(p.xx)23. The definition of an artist was very reductive when philosophers said that
it just refers to genuineness. For these philosophers, such as Kant, « the mysterious quality
in an artist [is] to create work with beauty », and that “genius [is what] gives the rule to
art” (Ibid. p131)24. To illustrate it, we can say that « Rousseau denied that women could be
genius because they lack the requisite passion »(Ibid. p131)25.
According to philosophers, art requires many conditions to be considered as such.
These theories provided many ideas about what is art, by giving standards about it.
Nevertheless, through two centuries these theories evolved a lot bringing all along times
new criteria to art. Moreover, according to these important theories, art needs to be about
beauty, taste, technicals, or again aesthetics. Does this theorization remained true during
the following centuries? Can these philosophers theories count today when speaking about
art?
17 Wassily Kandinsky. Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Ed. Kessinger Publishing, 2004
18 Oscar Wilde and the creation of London Fog retrieved from http://aestheticstoday.blogspot.com/2008/09/oscarwilde-
and-creation-of-london-fog.html
19 L’oeuvre d’art retrieved from http://www.idixa.net/Pixa/pagixa-0801012159.html
20 Proust, Le temps retrouvé, Ed. Folio Gallimard, 1954, p.34
21 Klee,Théorie de l’art moderne, Ed. Médiations Denoël, 1964, p.34
22 Merleau-Ponty, L’Oeil et l’esprit, Ed. Folio-Essais Gallimard, 1964, p.13
23 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
8
If art is the subject of many theories and debates for a long time, theorization of
art took many various forms, and evolved a lot. Today, specialists, philosophers, artists,
and critics seem to meet difficulties to give a common definition about art. Standards in
art also perpetuate and take new turns according to periods, art evolutions and
contexts. In this way, does the evolution of the world, customs, morals, progress, or
simply the evolution of art(s), can have an impact on it and its definition?
Over time, theories of art have been challenged because of many changes which
affected the art world : mores evolution, cultures sharing, progress, communication, etc.
Today, contemporary art shows how much art evolved, offering more and more forms,
revealing more and more artists from all over the world, and increasingly offering
controversial artworks. Contemporary art rises many questions about it and its value, and
above all a major matter : what is art today? Does anything can be art? Can any creation
called “art” can be considered as such?
Traditional definitions of art are definitely questioned, for many reasons tied to
contemporaneity and the evolution of the world Through times, cultures have been
developed and shared, communication lived many major marches and today we can speak
about a «globalisation». These advancements created a new level of creativity and
exploration for artists. The world becomes more and more connected, and artists or critics
are now aware of the idea that art across the world is becoming more familiar and
homogeneous. Globalization also rises problems about the value of art or artists, because a
criticized phenomenon appeared : the art business. Somebody who creates works,
recognized as art, can today sell them with exorbitant prices. If globalization seems to
permit the development of arts and their diffusion, giving them success, this phenomenon
radically changed the art value.
Globalization brought many changes to art, but also refers to the growing marketing
of the artistic framework. This phenomenon is today tied to a problem : are we in face of
the death of art or an enrichment of the cultural diversity? In this way, definitions of art
are nowadays so various. Nevertheless, as Cynthia Freeland explains « the art world is a
competitive place, and artists need any edge they can get, including shock value »(p.6)26,
which means that artists have to introduce novelties in their works in response to the
market. Dewey sum up this idea into the notion of « mass production » (Ibid. p.6)27.
26 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
27 Ibid.
9
Globalization implies a new international cultural context and it is because « art has always
been affected by cultural contact [that evolved] into distinctive art forms » (Cynthia
Freeland, p88)28. In this way, if globalization is strongly criticized because of the expansion
of business challenging the value of art, this phenomenon seems to radically develop art.
Cynthia Freeland speaks about « the long history of worldwide cultural interactions, and
their tremendous impact on art production»(p88)29. Many unknown art forms, related to a
particular culture or place, are today famous all over the world thanks to globalization of
art. For instance, Street Art is nowadays prised and appreciate everywhere. These works
are also now exposed in galleries, in many countries, whereas urban arts were solely
present in the United-States there’s about 30 years ago. Today, Street Art is visible all over
the world, making people from each country able to access and discover it. If « contact
with another culture’s art can help one understand [an]other culture », this idea is
regardless questioned by the fact that « our experience will be enhanced by having what
Dewey called ‘external facts’»(Ibid. p. 88)30. In reality, art from other cultures than our
own does not always correspond to our contemporary criteria “for art shown in galleries
and expressing individual aims or ‘genius’»(Ibid. p89)31.
This expansion of arts is also ensure by museums, offering an increasingly large
access to them : « museums preserve, collect, and educate the public and convey standards
about art’s value and quality » (Ibid. p.90)32. But, original standards, defined by
philosophers, seem to be different today and we can ask « whose standards, and
how? »(Ibid. p90)33 and even if « people in the field of aesthetics do more than try to define
what art is, [we] also want to explain why it is valued [...] how much people pay for
it »(Ibid. p6)34.
Globalization seems to affect positively the art world by enhancing cultures sharing,
artistic creations, and art forms diversity. This phenomenon makes art accessible to many
people, and permits to each one to discover different arts. This is possible thanks to the
new technologies enhancing communication and sharing. Nevertheless, a lot of critics and
specialists point the bad effects of globalization upon art such as « museum’s changing
28 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
10
purposes », « [the] inflation in the art market » or « [the] astronomical prices [of
Artworks]» (p. 102, 103, 105, Cynthia Freeland)35. More often, the evolution of the art
world rises this important question : « Is money the name of the game, an inescapable fact
about art today? »(Ibid. p.107)36. Museums are the first place which broadcasts art, its
standards to the public, and which gives access to art. However, globalization had an
important impact on them, challenging the art value and its purposes. For instance, when
the Pompidou center in Paris added restaurants or bookstores to its galleries, the art world
was a kind of chocked. The cause is the growing insertion of business into the art universe,
and the new museums aims. According to many specialists, these new behaviors have an
effect upon the audience and culture : « display methods altered viewers’ perceptions [...]
causing people to seek the high art value of something like a mundane and inexpensive
fishing net » (Ibid. p.105)37. Museums today settle a lot of actions related to business, such
as membership solicitations, which disrupt philosophers ideas about art, and above all the
value of art itself. As Cynthia Freeland develops, « a membership solicitation brochure
[created by] the Australia’s National Gallery of Art [in 1995, which uses the artwork Blue
Poles of J. Pollock]” makes rise an important matter : « after succumbing to this appeal,
will the new museum member really be able to look at Blue Poles for its artistic value? »
(p.105)38. In this way, one question remains : does money changed the value of art?
Cynthia Freeland also proposes a significant example to illustrate this phenomenon : the
case of Vincent Van Gogh artworks. Indeed, when the artist was alive, his works were
unknown and the artist never sold them. Nevertheless, today the value of these works is
huge, notably when considering the prices of their sales in 1987. Cynthia Freeland points
« the [grotesque] irony in light of the artist’s own poverty and despair over being unable to
sell works during his lifetime » (p.107)39. In this way, art business is becoming worrying
when considering the art value, but, at the same time, it makes obvious the quality or the
value of certain artists or artworks.
If globalization and new museums goals/habits have a strong effect upon the value
of art, it can have a positive effect, in the sens that museums increasingly propose different
art forms and permit to many artists to exist. These novelties enhance art creation and its
sharing. Besides, globalization obliges artists to escape or confront the art market, creating
a huge diversity in artistic creativity. As Cynthia Freeland explains, « some take money as
35 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid.
11
their subject matter by sculpting or painting it, even including real money in their art »
such as Hans Haacke (Germany) who « has made commercialization and corporate
support of art exhibitions the central subject of his work » (p.112)40. As mentioned
previously, globalization dynamized art forms, revealed numerous artists from all over the
world and enlarged access to many cultures such as the American graffiti art. This
particular Art form is nowadays well known, and Street Art appears everywhere and is now
shared in museums. Street Art proposes specials works with important messages, and this
art form is one of the best examples of the use of art business as a major subject or creation
source. In this way, Cynthia Freeland explains that « Graffiti artists, with their strike-andvanish
tactics, seem to reject the gallery system » (p112)41.
If the idea that « Human experiences of art have been significantly changed in this
postmodern age of the Internet, videos, [...] ads and posters »(Cynthia Freeland, p 178) is
supported by many professionals of art, nevertheless we can say that « mass production
contributed to human emancipation by promoting new modes of critical perception »
(Ibid. p179)42. The recent shift to art business enhanced access to art and constitutes now a
new source of creation for artists.
The evolution of Art thanks to many artists, and progress enhanced by globalization
and technologies, radically changed philosophers conceptions of what is art : today art is
not just about beauty, aesthetics, taste or quality. Art is nowadays not only referring to
beautiful paintings or sculptures anymore, but has to be tied to many artistic forms,
cultures, and rules (such as business). This has been possible thanks to institutions
recognitions of what is art. In this way, does any creation exposed in a gallery or a museum
is inevitably a work of art?
40 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
12
According to Arthur Danto, a professor of philosophy at the Columbia University
and art critic for the Nation since 1984, says that “anything can be art”43, and nowadays
it seems that it is a common belief, or at least, a kind of reality which create big debates.
Contemporary art and artists brought the idea that anything and everything can be art,
and that anybody can be an artist. This kind of common truth is nevertheless often
criticized and it appears that anyone has its own opinion about it. Yet, today, we can find
all kinds of art forms and creations within museums, and contemporary artists can
propose now surprising and criticizingly artworks. In this way, is it possible nowadays
to say that anything can be art?
So many new conceptions of art have been provided since the end of the XIXth
century, and the value and the role of Art are now in face of new theorizations. The first
idea brought by contemporary art is that it is not about beauty anymore. Ugliness can be a
topic for an artistic representation. In philosophers theories, ugliness was synonymous of
disorder and something to cancel because opposed to art itself and beauty. In classical
aesthetics, art is an imitation of nature, or an embellishment of reality (an imitation which
embellishes things). Ingres, Baudelaire or Boileau strongly criticized this traditional
conception by saying that the ugliness of the world don’t need to be transcended but
assumed and exploited by art. Nowadays, ugliness is a part of art, because it is notably
used for many denunciations or accusations. Malraux explained for instance that Goya
revealed “the dark side of the world”44. Thus, it is possible to make a wonderful painting
representing the ugliness of the universe, like the Portrait des Régents of Frans Hals.
Besides, Art can put forward what is vulgar, insipid or insignificant. For example, Flaubert
spoke in his books about trivial things or sadly familiar objects in a very beautiful way : “I
like what is revolting, it is the sublime of the bottom”45. Hence, when ugliness in used in
art, it can become a tool for the expression of messages. It seems so that, the evolution of
art, marked by the entrance of ugliness in artworks, anything now can be use for creating
art and that these non conventional practices in art reveal its power when an artist wants
to convey a particular message.
43 Kenneth Baker. AFTER THE END OF ART retrieved from

http://articles.sfgate.com/1997-02-23/books/17743948_1_art-critic-arthur-c-danto-true-art

44 Jean-Pierre Zarader. Malraux et Goya : Saturne, le destin, l’art et Goya. Retrieved from

http://www.philopsis.fr/spip.php?article184

45 Yvon Le Scanff. Le paysage romantique et l’expérience du sublime. Editions Champ Vallon, 2007
13
Additionally, as Kant tried to explain, art is not solely about an embellishment of
reality or nature, but it is about spirituality, that doesn’t appear in nature. A precise
conception of beauty in art is not legitimate anymore because other notions seem to be
more important, such as emotion. According to Kandinsky or Kant, beauty is insufficient
and an internal beauty sparking off emotions and feelings is in fact the roots of art. The
notion of beauty related to specific rules and standards is not available today because the
idea of a conventional beauty is opposed to contemporary art. According to the Breton’s
metaphor, the artistic experience is in reality not necessarily agreeable. Kant also speaks
about a “negative pleasure”, that he calls a “sublime [experience]”46. Another example is
relevant for showing how much beauty is not the essence of art anymore, it is
contemporary music. This one totally avoids harmony (before considered as crucial and
inevitable in music), showing that taste can now reject beauty in art.
Contemporary artists claim the art of transforming completely any trivial object into
a pleasant or moving artwork. For instance, when Van Gogh painted dirty shoes, or when
Toulouze-Lautrec represented prostitutes, making these images so beautiful or agreeable
to look at, theorization of art have been so challenged. Art is not systematically
synonymous of beauty anymore. In 1951, Jean Dubuffet, pioneer of the Art Brut
movement, speaks about “the imposture of beauty” and explains that it is impossible to
gather even two individuals under the same idea of what beauty is : “the Occidental culture
at each new century proclaims beautiful what was proclaimed ugly at the past century”47.
Dubuffet denounces the idea that beauty discernment needs a “special sense” : according
to him, it is important to be aware that any object of the world can constitute for anybody
the base of something illuminating and fascinating. Since the 1950′s, contemporary art
imposes a new conception of it, meaning that today art is not about beauty or standards,
but about feelings above all. Art is nowadays considered as something which gives a
particular value to an insignificant thing, by attracting people’s attention on things which
would escape us. According to recent theorizations of art, its power consists in making
lasting what is naturally fleeting, temporary and passing.
The concept of artwork or masterpiece also evolved through times, especially when
contemporary art gave foremost more importance to the artistic creation itself. We can
illustrate it with many examples of key evolutions within contemporary art. First, the
notion of work of art at the XVIIIth century refered to its specificity opposed to the serial
production of industrial products. We can compare this idea of ‘artwork singularity’ with
46 Alain Renaut. Introduction à la Critique de la faculté de juger, Ed. Aubier, 1995
47 Jean Dubuffet, Positions anticulturelles,in Prospectus et tous écrits suivants, ed. Gallimard, 1951
14
the Pop art movement which includes repetitions, series and industrial aesthetics. Second,
for a long time, art had a religious, political and magical function : artworks were in the
service of a social aim. Contemporary art changed the idea that art was a tool for the
society. For instance, the dadaist or surrealistic movements uses art as a political weapon,
a transgression, or a subversion of the social order. Then, in earliest theories, art was a tool
for cultures in creating durable artworks permitting to reinforce the identity of a people. At
the end of the XVIIIth century, an artwork needed to settle in time (notion of timelessness
of art) by letting an immortal trace and speaking for the entire mankind. This has to be
opposed to contemporary art with fleeting artworks, notably from the Body art or the Land
art. Many artists such as Christo made important works of art called “happenings” and
challenging traditional theories of art. Additionally, at the beginning of the XIXth a work of
art is tied to the notions of ‘creation’, ‘originality’, ‘novelty’, or ‘non reproduction’. We can
also compare this traditional definition of art with contemporary movements such as Pop
art or Ready made. Several artists like Duchamp proposed many mise-en-scenes, by using
simple common objects. This detournement of the day-to-day, often including
reproduction, radically disrupts traditional theories of art. Besides, if for a long time art
has been created under anonymity, the individuality and singularity of an artwork became
so important through centuries. A work of art corresponds nowadays to an artist, who is
the author of the work. The artist is now as important as the artwork.
Contemporary art radically made evolved theories, conceptions, and definitions
about art. Several artists, such as Andy Warhol or Marcel Duchamp, symbolize the new
turn that art took, especially from the moment when their works had been exposed in
museums. As Cynthia Freeland explains, « an object like Brillo Boxes [of Andy Warhol]
was baptized as ‘art’ if accepted by museum and gallery directors and purchased by art
collectors» and « with Brillo Boxes, Warhol demonstrated that anything can be a work of
art» (p. 57)48. In this way, philosophers conceptions of art and traditional definitions of it
nowadays appear as outdated. Indeed, contemporary art includes today many different
forms that past theories couldn’t see as artistic. We can also say that « narrow and
restricted views of earlier philosophers, who defined art in terms of Beauty, Form, etc.,
seem to rigid » because « even shocking art [...] can now count as art»(Ibid. p.55)49. As
explained previously, what the most correctly defines art is currently feelings that it can
make rise. A work of art requires today to be able to transmit feelings such as emotion,
48 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
49 Ibid.
15
shock, admiration, joy, fascination, openmindedness, etc. For Cynthia Freeland, « [a work
of art] may be viewed as art [if] it communicates thoughts or feelings »(p.55)50. Equally, a
work regarded as art needs to present a particular meaning or message. Danto explained it
by saying that a work of art embodies a meaning that the audience interprets in its own :
“nothing is an artwork without an interpretation that constitutes it as such»51.
Hence, contemporary art seems to contain recent standards and conventions which
help to define a work as art. If for ages art has been tied to particular standards, nowadays
they are less rigid and are, above all, based on the fact that an artwork is something
‘extraordinary’ or simply, a unique creation able to act on the audience. So, contemporary
art is strongly different from art defined in past theories, and art also seems to be more
accepted than it was in the past. That doesn’t mean that art holds more values, but that it is
nowadays related to changing and expanding values. This has resulted in a greater
acceptance of what is art and of who is an artist.
Today, art is not tied to an established and recognized value, art exists and holds a
value thanks to the viewer’s attribution of meanings to an art work. Additionally, the
evolution of arts through times has to be linked with particular contexts and the situation
of the art world at certain periods. In this way, if contemporary art seems to be sometimes
unaccessible for many reasons, it is necessary to be aware of the context of realization of a
contemporary work of art to appreciate it. Indeed, as Cynthia Freeland argues « even
artists from within a nation, people, or culture may face difficulties in assessing meaning
and value in art» (p.87)52. Thus, today it seems that the knowledge of the origins and the
context of an artwork is essential to understand why it is regarded as art. Consequently,
museums provide informations about each work of art exposed to the visitors in order to
make easier the access and the appreciation of a work. As Danto explained, « what artists
can make as art depends upon the context of intentions possible for a given era and
culture»53, idea also defended by Dewey saying that « we must learn the language of art by
entering into the spirit of the relevant community »54. Consequently, contemporary art
seems today to contain all kinds of creations, from all over the world, and the appreciation
of a contemporary artwork, as well as the recognition of it as art, are possible as soon as we
can know the context of its creation.
50 Ibid.
51 Arthur C. Danto. After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History. Princeton University Press, 1997.
52 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
53 Arthur C. Danto. After the End of Art: Contemporary Art and the Pale of History. Princeton University Press, 1997.
54 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
16
An other point is important when trying to provide a definition of art today, it is the
case of the artist. Contemporary art includes works of artists from each country in the
world, with many different status, life, technicals, etc. Indeed, it seems that today anybody
can be an artist. For instance, women have been excluded from art for a long time, and
only men could be artists, especially when considering XVIIIth philosophers theories. This
idea, sounding like unfair, outdated or absurd, regardless is, for instance, supported by
Linda Nochlin in her famous essay of 1971, saying that “there are no women equivalents
for Michelangelo or Rembrandt [...] de Koonin or Warhol”(p127)55. In this way, as Cynthia
Freeland demonstrates, at all time « even where women’s contributions have been
recognized [...] the artists still experienced restrictions and discrimination»(p128)56.
Nevertheless, contemporary art nowadays also contains female artworks : women artists
have been recognized as such and as important in art history, as much as men. For
example, the Museum of Women in the Arts of Washington promotes female art, and is
only dedicated to women creations. Many women have also been recognized as artists and
achieved an international recognition and fame, such as Cindy Sherman, Barbara Kruger
or Jenny Holzer. If « sometimes women’s ambition in their art was restricted by their own
sense of what is appropriate to their gender, or by internalized sexism» (Ibid, p127)57,
female artworks are now regarded as male ones : « the social conditions have changed
enormously to facilitate more female participation in the arts and greater recognition of
women artists’ merits» (Ibid, p.126)58. So, contemporary art is today composed by all kinds
of art forms made by all ‘kinds’ of human beings. If for XVIIIth and XIXth centuries
philosophers women couldn’t be artists, today it is blatant that they are able to create art,
as much as men.
When considering traditional theorizations of art, it is obvious that nowadays they
are not legitimate anymore for defining what is art. As mentioned previously, art is today
about emotions and meanings. Many recent theories are more often used to speak about
art and are radically opposed to earlier theories. First, the expression theory defines art as
an experience giving emotions and offering ideas or messages to the audience. This one
explains that art communicates both feelings and ideas, and defines the artist’s role as the
sharing of ideas in an original and unique way.
55 Linda Nochlin. Realism. Style and civilization. Ed. Penguin, 1971
56 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
57 Ibid.
58 Ibid.
17
Langer argues that a work is art when “the experience is new”59 for the viewers. As Cynthia
Freeland shows, in this theory, feelings are at the core of art : « whereas Tolstoy thought
the artist had a feeling that boiled out into a work. Collingwood also argued that making
arts comes [...] before having a feeling. To express the feeling in art is part of
understanding the feeling» and “[the artist's] act of expressing [...] is therefore an
exploration of his own emotions» (p161)60. The expression theory also supports the idea
that social and historical context of artists is required to appreciate a work of art. This
theory seems to be ideal to define what is art today and points the idea that anybody can
make art. Cynthia Freeland explains that « when viewers follow the artist’s efforts, we
recreate the process of self-discovery, so we too become artists »(p161)61. If this theory is
suitable for defining contemporary art, there are many other ideal conceptions, such as the
cognitive theory. This one explains that the « art’s role is enabling people to perceive,
manipulate, or otherwise grapple with reality [and art is] a function in our lives and should
not be remote [because it] is not just something to store on a shelf, but something people
use to enrich their world and their perceptions» (Ibid. p166)62. Dewey, pioneer of this idea,
also argued that art is a source of knowledge for people, by helping them to perceive the
world around them. For him, art is a kind of language altering individuals modes of
perceiving. We can sump up this notion with « art as something that we humans employ to
engage with our environment – by transforming our perceptions, art energizes us »(Ibid.
p169)63. The expression and cognitive theories explain how much art is a tool for human
communication, enhancing conveyance of messages, ideas, emotions and knowledges.
These theories also underline the fact that older theories, for example those based on
beauty, cannot well define what is art today.
Beyond official recent theories, many artists and art professionals provide
definitions or conceptions about art. Indeed, as demonstrated previously, there are as
much definitions about art as human beings. Globally all art specialists agree to say that it
is impossible to provide one only precise definition about what is art. Nevertheless, these
specialists bring ideas about art that can be used to sum up the current role or status of art.
For instance, Dr. Robert J. Belton explains that “any brief definition of art would
59 Howard Gardner, Philosophy in a New Key Revisited: An Appreciation of Susanne Langer, Art, Mind, and Brain: A
Cognitive Approach to Creativity, New York: Basic Books, 2001, p. 48–54
60 R. G. Collingwood. Outlines of a Philosophy of Art. Ed. Preface. 1925
61 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
62 Ibid.
63 Ibid.
18
oversimplify the matter, but we can say that all the definitions offered over the centuries
include some notion of human agency, whether through manual skills (as in the art of
sailing or painting or photography), intellectual manipulation (as in the art of politics), or
public or personal expression (as in the art of conversation)” and that “since this embraces
many types of production that are not conventionally deemed to be art, perhaps a better
term for them would be visual culture” 64.
So, it seems that even if a precise definition doesn’t exist for art, it still have
regardless several characteristics and still be surrounded by many notions. Ellen
Dissanayake, an independent scholar who focuses on the anthropological exploration of art
and culture, published What is Art For?, listing the characteristics of art. For her, art is
“the product of conscious intention, a self rewarding activity, a tendency to unite dissimilar
things, a concern with change and variety, the aesthetic exploitation of familiarity vs.
surprise, the aesthetic exploitation of tension vs. release, the imposition of order on
disorder, the creation of illusions, an indulgence in sensuousness, the exhibition of skill, a
desire to convey meanings, an indulgence in fantasy, the aggrandizement of self or others,
illustration, the heightening of existence, revelation, personal adornment or
embellishment, therapy, the giving of meaning to life, the generation of unselfconscious
experience, the provision of paradigms of order and/or disorder, training in the perception
of reality[...]”65 and so on. Equally, we can put forward the fact that specialists,
introductory books and study guides on art history, usually propose common basic
functions of art : to adorn, to beautify, to express, to illustrate, to mediate, to persuade, to
record, to redefine reality, and to redefine art. In this way, it seems that art is a so large
world, including an infinite number of forms, styles, origins, technicals, topics, etc.,
creating then an infinite number of conceptions and notions related to art.
Conclusively, the idea that ‘anything can be art’ could simply be summarized by the
fact that it is impossible to precisely define a work of art, because of the huge evolution that
art knew. Art is today a vast and all-embracing universe, including too much things : the
plurality of artistic movements, technicals, topics/themes treated, styles, etc. This so large
and rich diversity seems to keep human beings for finding a common definition about what
is art.
64 Art History : a preliminary hand book. Retrieved from

http://web.ubc.ca/okanagan/creative/links/arthistory/What_is_Art_.html

65 Ellen Dissanayake approach. Retrieved from http://denisdutton.com/dissanayake_review.htm
19
In order to well understand how much art evolved, and what art is today, the
example of the Street Art movement is ideal. This art, finding its origins in Graffiti, is often
considered as an illegal expression by the larger society, constituting vandalism. Graffiti art
derives from a tradition of subway graffiti birth in New York during the 1970′s. This art
form has been spread to many urban places around the USA but also to the rest of the
world, especially in Europe during the 1980′s. Graffiti art is now known as urban Street Art
and it can be defined as a cross-cultural phenomenon, proposing personalized space or
landscapes.
Originally, Street art expresses the identity of ethnic unities as well as diversity.
Graffiti can be sump up as concrete manifestations of personal and communal ideologies.
Street art works are visually striking or insistent, and often provocative by representing the
work of unrecognized or underground groups, radical student movements or dissatisfied
people. Street art is also seen as a rich art form because it often combines with other
expressive artistic forms such as poster or comic books, mural painting, newspapers or
political art exhibitions.
When it was born, Graffiti art was about monochrome « tags » and evolved then into
multicolored works (known as « pieces » derived from the word « masterpiece »). Nowadays,
these pieces are considered as real art and present a museum quality. Consequently,
Graffiti art moved from its original urban locations to the walls of galleries and museums.
Urban art also became attractive to many professional fine artists, such as Keith Haring,
who has been « legitimized » when his works moved from New York’s subway walls to
American galleries or even private collectors. Today, Street art is also studied in art
schools, which radically enhanced people’s interest in urban art and made easier the use of
graffiti (originally thanks to paint spray) by any lambda individual. In addition, many
Street Art artists participated to the emancipation of art, by offering artworks somewhere
else than in museums (which are even today visited more by a certain part of the
population). These artists promoted an easy and full access to art, without paying anything
or without belonging to a particular social group or to the richer part of the population. For
instance, Basquiat made several works in streets which have been then exposed in
museums and which acquired an very important value (and prices).
During the 1980′s, Street Art is increasingly present in European streets, and it
achieved the status of art when artists, such as Ernest Pignon Ernest, decided to propose
artworks in streets. Then, many artists became famous and enhanced the Street Art
phenomenon : Xavier Prou, Spliff Gachette, Blek, Obey, Kinsey, and the most famous of
20
them, Robin Cunningham well known as Banksy. In this way, when Street art was
regarded as vandalism for a long time, today it is a full-fledged art existing all over the
world, exposed in museums and galleries, studied in schools and also implied in the art
business.
Urban Art have been easily legitimated because this artistic movement well refers to
the purposes of art : inform people, convey messages and ideas, represent a lurking reality,
share opinions, denounce and critic, move viewers and make them think or react, etc.
Consequently, Street Art seems to constitute the best example of the reject of established
art theories and of what art is today. Street Art moved from the status of crime to real art
form, showing how much art evolved and enhanced the diversity of art forms. Because
Street Art is originally created by lambda individuals, the idea that anybody can be an
artist makes sens. By offering minimal artworks (made with words and simple materials),
Street Art improved the access to art and the now popular idea that anything can be art. In
Street Art, the artists canvas are public ones, with off-limits surfaces, visible for all to see
and without any exchange of cash : this movement simply shows that standards in art are
not required anymore to speak about it, and, above all, that art is accessible to each one,
whether you are an artist or a viewer. Street art is now regarded as genuine art, when
considering the artist’s intention and value to audience. Specialists argue that it has form,
color, and other base properties arranged into structures that qualify it aesthetically as
being art. Urban art is art because it shows the artist’s intention to produce a work of art,
also because Street art has an established history of development in style and technical. By
having been recognized by the art world, Street Art has become marketable and has been
legitimized by gallery openings and museum exhibitions.
Many artists and specialists argue that urban artworks constitute a part of the art
world because it is a unique way for any lambda individual to express a talent or an
idea/opinion/message. According to George Dickie, something is art when it is regarded as
such by both institutions (museums, galleries, etc.) ant the artist himself. In this way, the
entrance of Street art in museums, galleries, auctions, and the acceptance of it by the art
world, shows that Dickie’s definition of art could be the only one to keep in mind when
speaking about art today. In this way, Street art seems to be the current best example of
contemporary art saying that anybody can be an artist or that anything can be art.
21
Contemporary art now excludes nothing, and anything can count as art : objects,
melodies, advertisements, words, gestures, games, graphics, forms, emotions, concrete
actions, etc. Today art doesn’t have any limit and is about anything : unspeakable, hatred,
horror, beauty, nil, etc. The particularity of art is that it has become a kind of label in which
personal tastes and opinions are fundamental. Each one has its own definition about art,
or at least, regards art in its own. This recent essential notion is opposed to traditional or
academical conceptions of art. Besides, contemporary art is now everywhere, challenging
the world, life, society and our ways of thinking. If it seems that human beings sometimes
need tools to feel open to art (curiosity, desire of understanding or acceptance of
misunderstanding/perplexity), contemporary art in fact asks us to learn again to see, to
look at, to wonder, or to consider our emotions. When considering the current huge variety
of art forms, the human inability to define art, and the predominance of feelings in art, we
could say that art is today based on freedom and emotions. As the French famous writer
André Suarès said, “art is the pace of the perfect liberty”66 because art doesn’t need rules to
exist. Equally, the artist Georges Braque pointed that “art is made for disturbing” meaning
that art will always challenge human conceptions or theories about it, without avoiding it
to exist. Besides, Jillian Treacy, an essayist of the James Madison University, says that “art
doesn’t have to be beautiful because everyone’s idea of beautiful is different, not all ideas
are beautifully pleasing to the eye, and not all art is meant to be pretty”67. This has to be
tied to the idea supported by Cynthia Freeland that art cannot hold a precise definition
based on specific criteria, especially if we try to use past theories : « art doesn’t have to be a
play, a painting, garden, temple, cathedral, or opera. I doesn’t have to be beautiful or
moral. It doesn’t have to manifest personal genius or devotion to a god through luminosity,
geometry, and allegory » (p.58)68. Thus, the ideal recipe for a relevant definition about art
seems to be based on the mix between an infinite artistic creation and personal judgments.
Contemporary art shows that anything can be art, and this can constitute the major reason
of the impossibility to provide it a precise relevant definition.
The American writer on art Nancy Aiken simply says that “art can be made by any of
us. It need not result in museum-quality work; it can be only an elaboration of an ordinary
object: a hair style rather than plain hair, fashion rather than a simple covering to keep
warm”69.
66 Frédéric Gagneux, édition de textes inédits : André Suarès : les premiers écrits : documents et manuscrits , Ed.
Classiques Garnier, 2010.
67 Strawberry Lemonade. Retrieved from http://www.bdnewsarchive.com/news/odetails.php?id=85145
68 Cynthia Freeland. But is it Art? Oxford University Press, Ed. Arthur C. Danto. 2001.
69 Articles. What is Art? Retrieved from http://www.moodbook.com/history/articles/what-is-art.html
22
Finally, we can say that, obviously, anything can be art, and if it wasn’t the case until the
emergence of contemporary art, today human beings are in face of a total lack of rules in
terms of art.
As a conclusion, to sum up what have been demonstrated below, and to provide a
relevant guideline of what art have been and what it will always be about, we can
respectively quote three major artists from different periods, who strongly marked the art
world and history, to wit the French writer Stendhal, the Italian painter Modigliani and the
French artist Jean Dubuffet : “within arts, nothing is alive except what continually gives
pleasures”70 ; “the intent of art is to fight against obligations”71 ; “art does not lie down in
the bed we made for it ; it runs away as soon as we pronounce its name : what it likes is the
incognito [and its] best moments are when it forgets its name [because] real art is always
where we are not waiting for it”72.
70 Stendhal, Le Rouge et le Noir. Dir. Michel Crouzet. Ed. Lgf. Janvier 1972.
71 One of the Greatest Painters : Amedeo Modigliani 1880-1916. Retrieved from

http://www.historyofpainters.com/modigliani.htm

72 Jean Dubuffet. Positions anticulturelles, in Prospectus et tous écrits suivants, Ed. Gallimard
23
Conclusion
For ages art is above all a need for human beings and responds to a fundamental
common instinct of mankind. Art has been created by men, and still have a crucial
importance for them by being a part of the human personality. From the very moment of
the birth of art, and all along the evolution of art, human beings and art history tried to
understand it, to provide definitions, conceptions and theorizations about it. Nowadays, it
is obvious that the simple fact to ask what is art suggests that a work of art is undefinable.
Hence, the question which should remains is in fact “Why human beings try to define art?”
or “Why we ask what is art?”. Thierry de Duve, a Belgian professor of modern art theory
and contemporary art theory, explains that “art history is a desperate attempt to give a
sens to art”73. Today if specialists and artists know that the concept of art remains
undecidable, the prevalent conception of art is that a work of art is something that human
beings regard as such. This empirical definition seems to be now the only legitimate
definition of art. Art is now about everything and it is possible to say that anything can be
art. Even if current debates, like whether pornography or video games should count as art
or not, each one can decide if a work is art or not.
If art still be so important for the mankind, if men still marvel at it, and if it still
makes human beings endlessly wondering what it is, it is finally probably just because we
humans simply need it. Art simply exists and is just immortal because the human
knowledge or ability are powerless to kill it.
73 Idixa : L’histoire de l’art est une tentative désespérée de donner un sens à l’art. Retrieved from http://www.idixa.net/
Pixa/pagixa-0608270113.html
24
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Plato : Art definition. Retrieved 16, December, 2010 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/artdefinition/#
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What is art? What is an artist? Retrieved December, 2010 from

http://www.arthistory.sbc.edu/artartists/artartiststoday.html

27

E-Business and the Education sector

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
E-education is part of e-business because it is a process of delivering information via Internet. It is a service that can be for profit or not-for profit. In this paper we will cover themes from companies that create the online portals to education organizations that themselves provide the online education service to the end users, the clients, the students. We will understand why institutions invest in e-business technology, and how the technology is changing in good and bad the rules of learning and obtaining an education degree.
INTRODUCTION
Taking MBA classes from home for free is now possible. The London School of Business and Finance has launched a Facebook application that enables any Facebook user to follow videos of professors delivering their courses. This new application is the beginning of a new era for spreading knowledge and education globally.
E-business in higher education is an amazing progress that I am the first to take advantage and appreciate. From my home town in France, I am able to follow programs in two American universities at the same time. Starting by the ISM program that gives us the possibility to post assignments on-line, retrieve all the information the professors ask us to acknowledge and read, receive grades and feedbacks, use the on-line library. With the San Diego Community College I don’t even attend classes physically; it is a full on-line program. I have electronic textbooks, exercises to give back, quizzes and exams that don’t even require Microsoft softwares because everything is filled in on-line. If I need a transcript, I push the transcript button that automatically sends me the grades… This amazing improvement is beneficial for me, but I can’t imagine how revolutionizing it is for handicap people who never had the possibility to attend classes physically or for people already working two jobs that would never be able to have a flexible schedule to attend classes, but still want to obtain a degree.
ADAPTING TO THE CHAGING WORLD
We are currently in the middle of the fourth information revolution, so this objective of spreading information is not new. It is in the Human’s nature to want to share information. As for the past information revolution, the e-business revolution helps information: to be stored and disseminated for smaller costs, to be available to more people, to see new opportunities arise, to be more easily accessible. (E. Hadzilias, 2010). The e-Education was created because the whole information technology revolution, and many new social and economic trends, have changed how countries perform in the global economy, how companies do business, how people live. We don’t go to the post office anymore because we are able to send emails, we don’t go to shops anymore because we can buy online, we don’t go to administration buildings anymore because we can get information and pay taxes online, so why should we have to go somewhere to get education?
Making the dream come true
Greater education attainment by larger proportions of the population is the dream of many tutors, teachers, professors, educational organizations and even companies. Isn’t it also the objective of many countries to increase the overall education of the population? The founders of Wikipedia and other free websites that are meant to share information globally have achieved some of their objectives with their websites, by having so many visitors using the contents to find information. To create such websites the founders must of felt they had global education imperatives, and because they are never fully satisfied with their work, their websites are constantly evolving for the information to always be delivered with more veracity, faster, and better organized. This objective is shared by many university founders too that invest an increasing budget for e-Education. The investors are convinced that e-Education will higher the rates of student engagement, greater levels of institutional accountability, and fulfill national concerns for sustainability of the economy and social improvement.
The slow conversion
The educational system especially in old established universities can be seen as conservative cultures. It took longer for the universities to accept the e-business tools, than the young dynamic companies. At many universities starting with Harvard it is still possible to make a paper based application. Transferring to e-business means making big investments; those are not easy to cover as universities live off very limited funds. Moreover, the educational system has worked very well without the use of e-business, so there is a lack of business imperatives that slows down the decision making for investing in such applications.
The e-business includes an infinite number of applications that are meant to improve systems and a wide number of tasks. The implementation of e-business is complex and should be incremental. Deciding to convert to e-business for one single application already requires planning and organization work. When implementing processes and technologies to transpose data, there is a high risk for mistakes so the project has to be very well planned. Projects can take a few years before they start functioning.
A common mistake observed by J.Mitchell (2002) during his research, is that educational administrators tend to focus on selecting the technology, instead of being clear about user concerns. After experimental processes in the early 2000’s, universities have gained experience in choosing the e-business solutions they need. The experimentation process takes time that is expensive, risky and inefficient, so universities procrastinate the implementations.
Finally, the universities are devoted to equality between students and communities, and the access to technology was limited at the beginning, so they were reluctant to suggest e-applications. However in 2010, universities should not consider that using e-business technology is a factor of unevenness between students and applicants. Actually Universities now see internet as a way to deliver higher education to more people, it has become a ubiquitous tool, and providing education to a broader number of people; using e-business now means enhancing equality between students.
Answering to the new curricula needs
E-education was created because e-business in general was booming. Employees work on the computer with Internet all day long nowadays. They spend their time using softwares and communicating with colleagues and clients through electronic mail. The internal communication department works primarily on the intranet, the Handymen are tech experts, and manager meetings between subsidiaries take place through conference calls. Most of the postings of job offers for business require the people applying to have computer skills… Higher education institutions’ objective is not only to make people intelligent but to help students find work. To find work one needs to fulfill the job descriptions, so universities have to adapt their programs to teach skills that are requested by the companies. In the past decade new classes have appeared:  Website Creation with Dreamweaver, introduction to CC+, introduction to programming with Java, using the Excel tools…
I have taken several computer classes by attending classes physically and I also have taken fully online computer classes. My own experience has proven how important it is to have developed online classes. It is very hard to execute and learn about softwares the same way we learn about history or economy. The teacher cannot only talk; one has to execute to learn. The teacher does not need to control the result of the student because the computer makes sure the execution was correct. So teaching these classes meant rethinking the whole class session. In that case, online classes are appropriate, which is not always the case as we will see in the last part of the paper. Using the online tools for the online classes: forum, email, attaching files, unzipping files…is actually doing the same maneuvers that will be asked in the professional work. So the students are already taking the habits of using the appropriate tools for future work. E-business revolutionizes education programs and professors because work needs have changed.
APPLICATIONS AND ITS PROVIDERS
B2E takes part of the Universities’ e-business investment:
Being a student, I see e-business as a great tool to interact faster and from any place with the university. I consider my university to practice e-business because they have a nice website with many application possibilities, and students have access to an on-line portal. So my first reasoning is that my university chose e-business because it helps to have better contact with the external environment. But it is also used within the institution. In fact, the internal use came before the external use. Sharing databases and sending emails between the faculty members was the pioneering period of e-business.
Staff on campus as in any company use Intranet, which permits them to have access to a wide range of applications that help them in their everyday work.  They can send emails to each other that stay within the university, because the intranet is a private computer network. The work undertaken by University staff involves a lot of data sharing so the intranet was an extremely important technology to implement. Via intranet, employees access the university portal by typing their identification number and password. Depending on the hierarchy level in the organization of the employee, he has access to a certain portion of the intranet. Thanks to the intranet, the university is able to practice B2E. Applications include sending information to employees on latest news, search engine to databases, job advertisement, and library access, leave applications and approvals, timetables, IT service request… In the research paper of Mahabubur and Mohini (2007), we learn that the Australian university they observed was able to reduce staff by 12% in the years 2004 and 2005, just by using the B2E system that automated administrative processes. In addition they reduced costs of purchasing (paper, office supplies), filing, storage space, recycling, phone call costs; they also lowered their paper consumption. Finally they increased their service to employees who have easier access to information and fewer possibilities to make mistakes. On the long term the university is decreasing the salary budget, in favor of more technology. The internal system of the university is revolutionizing itself so it must impact the external environment.
Recruiting and Applying
Before the internet era, High School students and students wanting to transfer to another university took time off their school schedule to visit a few universities in order to make their choice for applications. To choose and apply to a university, students don’t need to step in the campus before the first day of class anymore. They actually can take classes from home and never have to enter a concrete education building.
Applying to a university means paying an application fee, filling a questionnaire, attaching administrative papers, education records… It is a tedious and time consuming step necessary to enter higher education. Receiving applications and all the administrative papers, classifying, proof reading, archiving every single applicant was a very tedious and time consuming work for the university. This work meant many employees, often for seasonal tasks because applications all arrive at the same time. Using an e-business solution simplified many application tasks. Fewer files are lost, the postal service loss is not a problem anymore, and the classifying and proofreading are done automatically by the database software. The student is also warned automatically by the software that his application was well received, so he is not worrying to know whether the application was taken into account.
This whole transition to an electronic base is one of many examples that save a lot of money and time to the university.
Supplier of e-learning
Universities have big investments partly because they use expert companies to create the technological solution. Blackboard, for example creates personalized products for institutions. They sell enterprise softwares and services solutions to improve the service that higher education institutions provide to students. The students’ and faculties’ expectations have changed and the institutions have to adapt so they rely on companies such as Blackboard to innovate in the on-line learning and e-commerce sector. The frequent softwares created by Blackboard are course management softwares and network transaction systems.
The packages suggested by the supplier are complete in the sense that they take care of the whole implementation. Students and parents see the software as a better chance to succeed in studies because it enhances the educational interactions and fits the students’ lifestyles. The product also includes a back-office system that automates student registration, financial aid, human resources management, enrollment management and university advancement.
The company has many products to adapt to every customer. In their press release, Blackboard’s Role on the 21st Century Campus, they talk about their future products and objectives. With the success of Web 2.0 technology, the company decided to also invest time in this field. They have already created a website called: scholar.com that will enable to easily share resources and knowledge between campuses. The universities will be connected through social networking and collaborate in order to diffuse quality information faster and to more people. Another project is meant to adapt to the life continuing education students. Because people tend to jump from education to professional life and vice versa a few times in their life, they could have an ePortfolio-for-life that keeps track of their academic and career life accomplishments.
Blackboard has clients all around the world; they have acquired their biggest competitor WebCT in 2006, which makes their leadership in Corporate Learning Solutions undeniable. They have proved how important distance learning has become.  Their notoriety increased after the Hurricane Katrina. The company provided an alternative Blackboard environment to all the institutions that were impacted by the natural disaster in the Gulf Coast region. The Hurricane made landfall two days before the University Fall semester started. Tulane University had to cancel the semester, so Blackboard as part of their volunteering initiative designed a new platform space. Students from New Orleans had no real campus anymore, but some were able to follow classes through the on-line portal. The e-learning was a grand savior for thousands of students.
THE INNOVATIONS
Spreading Education
The London School of Business & Finance, is known for innovating in the educational technology. They created the InterActive learning platform that is a pure player organization for delivering higher education. This year, they decided to use Facebook to create a new way of acquiring an MBA. The Global MBA application works the same way pure-player distance learning websites do. To become an LSBF Global MBA Student you need to have a Facebook account and push the button Like of the LSBF Global MBA Group. You are then able to watch 40 classes of introductory course in four different subjects: Strategic Planning, Organizational Behavior, Corporate Finance and Marketing Management. Every course includes an introductory video to have an overview of the topic, a Video lecture that provides the key principles, a case study which applies the theory to a real world experience, and finally a Progression and Assessment section to debrief the case study. The real innovation compared to other online learning is the course discussion happening on Facebook walls. You also have the possibility to stock information on your own Facebook Global MBA page.
As the LSBF Global MBA (2010) says, they decided to challenge normal business conventions the same way they teach their MBA students how to do. They changed the rules of how an Online MBA should be delivered. Instead of paying a university upfront for lecturers, material and courses, without even knowing whether there is a good quality of deliverance, the Global MBA provides all the material to prepare for an MBA exam, and when you want an MBA accreditation you will pay to pass the exam.
LSBF is a privately owned business school. To create the course the founder and chief executive of the school is making a long term investment of £7.5 million. He is expecting 500,000 users for the first year of operation. Mr. Aaron Etingen justifies his investment: “There is immense potential in the market for online education. Facebook is a real part of people’s lives and we want to promote accessibility to knowledge” (S.Shearman, Marketing Magazine).
LSBF is attracting new students and hopes to confer many with credits for their diploma that will be the remuneration of LSBF. In this case it is hard to determine whether Mr. Etingen acted more to fulfill his need to transfer knowledge globally or seize an enormous market for potential revenue generation.
Pure-Players in higher education
Like in every sector, pure players have arisen from e-Education. For example, the for-profit e-learning company K12 Inc generated $385 million in revenue in 2009 with online courses. The company accounts for more than 70 000 students across USA. Instead of having their own buildings they have school partnerships, so a student can choose to take full time K12 classes or attend classes at a school as well as take classes online, because some subjects are not thought at the school. For K12 the biggest challenge is to develop content from scratch. The company paid $30 million in 2009 for content creation. Pure Players unlike normal institutions that have a lot of material cost, maintenance and building costs, invest their benefits in better technology. The critic is often that the for-profit pure players prefer to use the same content one can obtain traditionally because it is cheaper than investing in expensive multimedia that really makes a difference in the quality of the service.
The number of students taking additional classes online is increasing 45% every year (C. Gustke), mainly High school students that take a foreign language online to prepare for university applications’ competitiveness. Public and private educations are competing with the pure players that provide another dimension to learning. Students can have education at any time of the day, on any day of the week, and any day in the year. Normal teachers are not the only school knowledge providers anymore, they have to adapt to students that will maybe have taken the class during the summer before starting the school year, they have less control over the student’s school education development. Pure players revolutionize education because they make traditional teachers change their method of teaching a class.
Use technology strategically not to deteriorate
E-education is good for the environment because people don’t transport themselves to attend classes anymore, which is also a spare of time for the students. Moreover they have electronic textbooks that assure that less paper has been used. However, not attending classes physically means not interacting physically with other classmates and teachers. The social part of education is deteriorated. Blackboard would argue that through their online portals students have access to a forum and web 2.0 technologies that enable them to talk instantly to their fellow students. But this interaction cannot be compared to a real class situation, where students are shy and have to make big efforts to trespass their timidity. They don’t have to do live improvisation to answer a professor’s direct question; they don’t have to care about how they can express themselves orally, whether they speak loud enough… Finally they don’t make any oral presentations in front of a class. All these parameters limit the possibilities of an online education website to be described as well-rounded program.
Developing good oral skills, delivering good presentations, improvising a speech, convincing, controlling one’s physical reactions to stress, having a good appearance, are all skills to master, especially for MBA students that are not possible to learn through online education.  The quality of the students is partly decayed due to less social interaction. The best programs that use e-business are the “Hybrid programs” that combine online and face-to-face courses in school. Indeed these mixed programs maintain the parameters that make face-to-face classes unique and the online advantages. Online classes certainly develop skills that face-to-face classes didn’t develop as well. Online classes oblige the students to organize their own schedule to work on the classes, to find motivation to work from home without anyone pushing them, to be independent and aware of the fact that they learn for their own development. It creates a more individualistic thinking that has advantages for a country.
Instead of replacing one system: the face-to-face system, by a new system: the online system, there should be synergies that create a new approach to provide high quality education. There are still many improvements to be done for the new technologies to be used more systematically and with more comprehension.
CONCLUSION
The e-business supports the higher education sector the same way it helps companies in general. It helps improving efficiency, reducing costs, increasing speed of transactions, expanding markets, providing additional value for clients. The wide number of applications makes it even more interesting for universities than many firms. As any other market sector, higher education is hit by this inevitable improvement that redesigns the whole dynamics and rules of the sector. Improving the sector creates high-skilled workforce that generates new knowledge and technologies, so national education and other learning processes hold a major responsibility in developing the country’s competitiveness. Countries don’t need only material and infrastructures but educated humans with various skills. The e-Education systems are an incredible tool for developed and developing countries that can seize the opportunity of educating more, better and over a life time.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

In-Class Seminar:
E. Hadzilias, “The Fourth Information revolution”, E-business seminar, 3rd & 4th December 2010.

ONLINE LIBRARY EBSCO HOST:
R. Mahbubur, S. Mohini, « Understanding Benefits and Impediments of B2E E-Business Systems Adoption : Experience of Two Large Australian Universities », Journal Of Internet Commerce, ebscohost library Portal, June 1st 2007, HYPERLINK « http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&hid=22&sid=1cc18c82-a75c-4334-93f8-cad532b367dd%40sessionmgr4″http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&hid=22&sid=1cc18c82-a75c-4334-93f8-cad532b367dd%40sessionmgr4, accessed on 8th of December 2010.

WEBSITE PDF:
K. Larsen, “Unlocking the Global Education Imperative”, PDF provided by Blackboard, n.d, HYPERLINK « http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=6032f8df-b6ba-4510-81d2-3198459529dc »http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=6032f8df-b6ba-4510-81d2-3198459529dc, accessed on the 13th of December 2010.

Blackboard PR, “Blackboard’s Role on the 21st Century Campus”, PDF Press release, n.d, HYPERLINK « http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=cc9ab8c4-0b94-45ec-8223-0f0d2706afcf »http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=cc9ab8c4-0b94-45ec-8223-0f0d2706afcf, accessed on the 8th of December 2010.

G. Freedman, “Unlocking the Global Education Imperative” , PDF provided by Blackboard, n.d, HYPERLINK « http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=6032f8df-b6ba-4510-81d2-3198459529dc »http://www.blackboard.com/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=6032f8df-b6ba-4510-81d2-3198459529dc, accessed on the 13th of December 2010.

J.Mitchell (2002), «The effective use of electronic business in the education sector”, ebusiness in Education, case study provided by NOIE (National Office for the Information Economy), 2002, HYPERLINK « http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN015715.pdf »http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN015715.pdf, accessed on 7th of December 2010.

WEBSITE:

LSBF, Global MBA, “How It Works”, HYPERLINK « http://apps.facebook.com/lsbfglobalmba/?type=discovery »http://apps.facebook.com/lsbfglobalmba/?type=discovery, accessed on the 8th of December.

S. Shearman, “LSBF offering free MBA on Facebook”, Marketing Magazine, web article, 1st November 2010, HYPERLINK « http://www.marketingmagazine.co.uk/news/1038156/LSBF-offering-free-MBA-Facebook/ »http://www.marketingmagazine.co.uk/news/1038156/LSBF-offering-free-MBA-Facebook/, accessed on 8th December 2010.

C. Gustke, “E-Education Inc. Seeks the mainstream”, Education Week, web article, 13th July 2010, HYPERLINK « http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2010/07/14/36ebiz.h29.html?tkn=ROMF4TaNv0gaJePPwFfqrJyxOo10nBqsbTHb&print=1″http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2010/07/14/36ebiz.h29.html?tkn=ROMF4TaNv0gaJePPwFfqrJyxOo10nBqsbTHb&print=1, accessed on the 13th of December 2010.

 E. Hadzilias, “The Fourth Information revolution”, E-business seminar, 3rd & 4th December 2010.
 G. Freedman, “Unlocking the Global Education Imperative” , PDF provided by Blackboard
 J.Mitchell (2002), «The effective use of electronic business in the education sector”, ebusiness in Education, case study provided by NOIE (National Office for the Information Economy)
 R. Mahbubur, S. Mohini, « Understanding Benefits and Impediments of B2E E-Business Systems Adoption : Experience of Two Large Australian Universities », Journal Of Internet Commerce
 Blackboard PR, “Blackboard’s Role on the 21st Century Campus”, PDF Press release
 LSBF, Global MBA, “How It Works”,
 S. Shearman, “LSBF offering free MBA on Facebook”, Marketing Magazine
 C. Gustke, “E-Education Inc. Seeks the mainstream”, Education Week
 K. Larsen, “Unlocking the Global Education Imperative”, PDF provided by Blackboard

Science and universities at the XI-XIVth centuries

Lesson in a German university of the XIVth century.  (painting from Lorenzo de Voleter)

Science is opposite to dogma. Dogma is imposed a truth whereas Science is trying to understand phenomenon, and is open to criticism and correction. Scientific results are always comparing to the reality. This definition can be applied today but also back in the XII century. Science in the history is strongly link with philosophy. It could be strange for us living in the XXI century to consider philosophy as a science. However, the first philosopher was doing a sort of science because they tried to explain natural phenomenon by philosophy. During the middle-age, what we called science is about studying the nature.

There is not really a clear classification at the middle-age and the Renaissance between the different disciplines in what we called sciences.  Theology, logic, mathematics, natural philosophy … The distinction is blurred. A thinker knows a bit of each discipline to be considered as such. Bridges between disciplines are numerous. To clearly understand the medieval logic, we have to understand the place where she is elaborate and teach: the University.

The term university appeared in the XI century. One of the first universities appears in Paris in 1200. This corporation of masters and students obtained some privileges from the pope in 1200 and a complete autonomy in 1231. There are 9 universities between the XIII and the XIV century. We can give as other example the University of Oxford in 1249 and the one of Cambridge in 1249. They appear in a rebirth context where the antic knowledge is rediscovered and the Aristotelianism is one of the most important influences. This thirst for knowledge will continue until the Renaissance.


Map of the medieval universities.

A university is composed into 4 faculties: Theology, Canon law, medicine and arts. The time of studies was from 6 to 15 years. A complete curriculum included a baccalaureate, a bachelor and a master. One of the most important universities was Paris. Her Apogee was from1230 to 1280 with an average of 5 000 students.
The question we can ask us here is: How the emergence of the university was to trigger a scientific and intellectual movement in Europe between the XIth and the XIVth century?
Our subject is during the XI-XIVth century. This period experienced a cultural momentum in the XIIth century. Europe is really interested in science and it is in progress.
Every kind of science was studied. However, some subjects were more important, more studied. Before the XII century, education was based on Platonism. But with this context of reborn, they start to rediscover all the work of Aristotle. In all domains, Aristotle and Averroes, his Arabo-Andalusian commentator was really in the heart of the studies and allowed a deep renewal. The rules of scholasticism were followed. To put it in a nutshell, scholasticism is to consider Nature like a coherent set of phenomena. The way to study was to start by reading texts and then they were discussing them by following strict rules. In theology or in natural philosophy, they comment, argue, dispute…This is the same way to practice for the dialectic art.
Europe in science was late compare to the Arab-Muslim civilization. Thinkers tried to explain phenomenon by using logic, reason to catch this late. However, we have to be careful with the word logic because it was more use the intuition than mathematical logic as we know it today.  The thought alone is enough for the scholar. In the Middle-age, a scientist used observation and speculation without any care of experimentation.
The world of Islam was really taken to model. The Islamic thinkers (As we said, Averroes, Avicenna among others) were highly respected and even schools or universities were built on the Islamic model.
Our subject is in a very religious context. So it’s important to understand how science and religion coexist into institutions such as universities. Indeed, The Church is suspicious with regards to these texts. They are threatening for the Christian dogma because of a scientific rationalism. The Church forbade the University of Paris, the study of Aristotle and his comments in 1210. This prohibition is repeated by Gregory IX, the pope, in 1231. Aristotle is condemned by the Bishop of Paris in 1277.
But it is quite interesting to note that these measures be repeated many times in so little time. This is because there is a real progress, more or less clandestine, into the first Parisian aristotelianism at the art faculty. The aristotelianism is gaining ground. She enters into the theology faculty thanks to the mendicant order (Franciscan, Dominican…) in 1230- 1250. We could be surprise that religious people are involved into aristotelianism. The reason is that the Church itself, asked to three Master of theology to study, to revise, to rewrite and to purge the works of Aristotle and Averroes. After that the work will be consider as usable.
We can consider that there are two different way to think at this period in philosophy. There is the Platoon side and the Aristotle side. This is easier for the Church to follow Platoon idea in general than Aristotelianism idea. For instance, Aristotle said that the universe is eternal. There is a beginning but there is no end. This idea is against what the Bible says. However, Platoon said that there is a beginning at the universe and an end. So that is why the Church are disagree to use the work of Aristotle entirely. One of the Aristotle commentator, Avicenna, also an arabo-andalusian thinker use Platoon to explain Aristotle texts. Indeed, Avicenna tries to put Faith and reason on an equal plan. Averroes is incompatible with Christianity ideas. So the mendicants are not into a “pure” aristotelianism just like the seculars are. They prefer base their study on Avicenna. 
Some mendicants have a really strong position on the subject and they refuse to have any link between, philosophy and theology. For example, Bonaventure, a Franciscan chief, think this way. On the opposite, Thomas Aquinas from the Dominican order thinks that philosophy can’t be separate from theology. Philosophy has no autonomy.  He is like a Christian philosopher.
So we have some religious who can reconcile faith and reason, and others who refused to attach an importance to science and reason. There is also a huge opposition between art faculty, which studies every text of Aristotle and integrates totally philosophy to the teaching program, and between the theology faculty which is chilly face to this discipline.
To conclude, the middle-age is a very interesting period to study in history of science. Indeed, the philosophers start to rediscovers the Antic texts and it is just before the modern period. The middle-age is a transition between those two parts but it also has particularities. This period is really different from ours, or from the modern period which is based on Newton or Galileo. Middle-age followed others schemes. This is obvious that Middle-age announce the Renaissance and this extraordinary intellectual movement in science. The first universities had a essential role to play in this movement. But we have to keep in mind that during the Middle-age, the knowledge was exclusive for a restraint numerous of people. They thought that science had to stay a secret, away for the common people. The universities are really extended in all Europe only at the end of our period, in XIVth century. So this knowledge was real, but limited. This is not comparable to the Renaissance. And as we saw, the Christianity, which was just beginning to strengthen, reinforce its power, was divided about science. According to some theologian, Nature is a creation of God so this is important to study it and to be amazed. Which is why we have some great thinker just like Thomas Aquinas or Saint Augustin who are religious people. In another hand, some mendicants, sometimes the pope himself, were really threatened by science and the contradictions between scientific results and the Bible.
This period is about transformation of science. Thanks to the universities, (Paris, Oxford), science change its face, became more open even if it was still link with religious dogma, philosophy and often astrology.

Bibliography

Working Tool
GAUVARD C., Dictionnaire du Moyen âge, Paris, 2002
GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Paris, 1998, 622 p.
The Oxford English dictionary, Second edition, Oxford, 1991.

General Books
CHELENI J., Histoire religieuse de l’Occident médiéval, Paris, 1991, 661 p.
LE GOFF J., Les intellectuels au Moyen-âge, Paris, 2000, 245 p.

Books focus on the Subject

GUENÉE S., Les universités françaises des origines à la révolution, Paris, 1982, 314 p.
MINOT J., Histoire des universités française, Paris, 1991, 127 p.
VERGER J., Les université au Moyen âge, Paris, 1992, 150 p.
GILSON E., La philosophie de Bonaventure, Paris, 1924, 615 p.

Articles
VANDIJK W.C, « Université », in Encyclopaedia Universalis
BOQUIN D.,  « L’argumentation au moyen âge », in Science pour la vie, Octobre-décembre 2005, n°48.
CELEYRETTE G., “Les sciences dans l’occident médiéval”,  in Utopies, n°69, 2006, 46-53 p.

Bibliography : Translation

Working Tool
GAUVARD C., Middle-age dictionary, Paris, 2002
GERHARDS A., Historical dictionary of religious order, Paris, 1998, 622 p.
The Oxford English dictionary, Second edition, Oxford, 1991.

General Books
CHELENI J., Religious history of medieval Europe, Paris, 1991, 661 p.
LE GOFF J., The Middle-age thinkers, Paris, 2000, 245 p.

Books focus on the Subject

GUENÉE S., French universities: From the origin to the French revolutionary, Paris, 1982, 314 p.
MINOT J., History of the French universities, Paris, 1991, 127 p.
VERGER J., Universities of Middle-age, Paris, 1992, 150 p.
GILSON E., Bonaventure philosophy, Paris, 1924, 615 p.

Articles
VANDIJK W.C, « University », in Encyclopaedia Universalis
BOQUIN D.,  « Argumentation in the Middle-age », in Science pour la vie, Octobre-décembre 2005, n°48.
CELEYRETTE G., “Science in Europe in the Middle-age”,  in Utopies, n°69, 2006, 46-53 p.

 GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Op. Cit. p. 593

 GERHARDS A., Dictionnaire historique des Ordres religieux, Op. Cit. p. 595

British and American Universities

1. Briefly present the university system in the US and the UK and the selection process adopted by the elite universities in both countries

American college and universities are among the world’s most prestigious.  Indeed, more than thirty of the highest-ranked forty five institutions are in the United States. Students can apply to every universities and colleges they want to, but the most brilliant ones are selected by the universities, as long as these students are able to pay school fees. In the United States, we have two types of universities: there are private universities (like Harvard, Princeton or Yale) that are very selective (they choose the best students only) and expensive, and there are public schools, more reachable. To join an American university, students have to take an achievement test named SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) that measures literacy, numeric, and writing skills that are needed for academic success in college. In france students have to take a Test QI

In the United Kingdom, universities are famous thanks to their history. Indeed there are old universities like Cambridge, Oxford or St Andrews, known all over the world.
In the UK the university system is different from the American system. Universities in the UK are generally public institutions. Indeed, the majority of British universities are state financed, so that school fees aren’t as expensive as in America (except for public schools).  The tuition fees cannot overtake a certain amount and the governments help the poorest students. As a matter of fact, it is easier to go to the college in the UK.

On that grill bellow we can see the top ten of the universities and we can see that they are all British and American ones.

 EMBED PBrush 


2. Give facts and figures about the cost of college education

When students are accepted in the universities they have chosen, they have to face up the problem of the tuition fees. Indeed, in some cases these fees can reach significant amounts.



On the graph we can see that tuitions fees keep on increasing every year for both public and private schools in America. And for private schools, these fees can reach more than $70 000 a year (for Harvard or Stanford).

As in the UK universities are state financed, the government has decided that tuition fees would not overtake £3000 a year, but British universities say that amount isn’t enough, they want  no limit on fees and higher fees for some courses (the most popular ones).

3. Analyse the causes of the phenomenon (why is university so expensive?)

The reason why universities are that expensive are numerous.
First, universities must be attractive for the best professors (that they have to pay) and the best students. So they have to invest a lot of money to offer excellent courses and a lot of extracurricular activities and clubs, important libraries, computers, the Internet. That represents a large part of a university spending. Then universities need money to help financially some students (the poorest ones).
But the main reason is that universities have to reach excellence and have to be prestigious. That is the reason why sometimes, education and business are confused.

4. Present the consequences for students and their parents and the solutions they have adopted

As they have to pay significant amounts for their studies, students have to face a big problem: debts. Indeed, as tuitions fees are very important, parents’ contribution or part time jobs aren’t enough, students have to borrow money. And the problem is that it is hard for them to repay that money and that repaying can take a long time. And then an important part of their future earning will make repayment for these debts and that will penalize them in their future life.
It is the same case for parents that have to help their child, and sometimes children. So hey have to borrow money to help them and give them the opportunity of a better future, and they have to work during long time to repay these debts.

5. Indicate if you think it would be a good idea to adopt the same system in France

According to me, that would not be a good idea to adopt the same system in France because in France everyone can go to the university without being worried by any money problem, as universities aren’t expensive at all. Indeed, we have, according to me, a fair university system, where everyone can study and claim to a future, without being crippled with debts. So, of course there are very expensive private schools, but the good thing is that these private schools aren’t more prestigious than public universities.

Bibliographie indicative

Green, Andy, Education and state formation: the rise of education systems in England, France and the USA, 1990
Education for social citizenship: perceptions of teachers in the USA, Australia, England, Russia and China , edited by W. O. Lee and Jeffrey T. Fouts, 2005


University education in the US and the UK

I)  The selection process to get into university

1) The different university systems

A) Higher education in the United States
American colleges and universities are really prestigious all around the world, and even sometimes the most prestigious.
According to a research, more than 30 highest ranking institutions over 45 (so college and universities) are situated in the United States.
According to UNESCO, the United States has the second largest number of higher education institutions in the world.
These institutions include public universities, private universities, liberal arts colleges, and community colleges.
The university system is independent of the federal government; it is why we can qualify the American university system as decentralized.
After two years at college, students can earn an associate’s degree, and after four years, a bachelor’s degree.
Universities offer master’s degrees and doctorates.

B) Universities in the United Kingdom
The creation of UK universities needs the approval of the Privy Council.
The universities come from six types of universities:
the Ancient Universities (created between the 12th and the 16th centuries)
The University of London, of Wales and the Durham University
The Red Brick Universities (civic universities founded before World War I)
The Plate Glass Universities (chartered in the second period of the 20th century)
The Open University (offering distance education and learning)
The New Universities (post 1992)

One example: the Red Brick Universities
The term “Red Brick Universities” corresponds to six civic British universities.
They were created at the beginning of the 20th century, in the most important industrial cities. These Red Bricks were composed at the beginning by the universities of: Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol and Manchester.

The University of Birmingham                               comes from the Birmingham Medical School (1825). It was the first of the Red Bricks Universities to receive a university status.

The Aston Webb building, University of Birmingham

2) The selection process

In the USA
The SAT Reasoning Test (new name of the Scholastic Aptitude Test) is a standardized test, which permitted the admission in an American college.
This test is developed by the College Board. According to the College Board, the SAT is a way to know if a student is ready to go to college.
It measures the students’ level in mathematics, literature and writing, skills that are necessary to succeed during the studies at college.
Most of the questions are multiple choices.
Some colleges have a personal test for admission:
It’s the case for instance of the Ivy League School: to enter an Ivy League College, you need prestige: these colleges are said to be elite universities.
Each Ivy League has a personalized selection based on different factors: academic excellence, social responsibility, leadership skills, emphasis on sport, practise of extra-activities, and certain personality characteristics.

B) In the UK
In the United Kingdom, you apply to universities through the UCAS: the Universities and Colleges Admissions Services.
Students can apply to six universities.
In some universities, the selection is made thanks to interviews. It’s the case in Oxford or Cambridge for instance: admissions tutors say that the interviews are a way to differentiate very strongly qualified candidates.
It’s a way to know how they think and can respond to some specific questions, applying their knowledge to an unfamiliar situation.

II) Cost of university education

Facts and figures

The question of the increasing of the tuition fees is a serious problem in the United States and in the United Kingdom.
Colleges and universities are really expensive, and the cost of college tuition continues to go up.


In the USA, fees have risen and continue to increase, most of the time, faster than the family’s incomings. The cost of college has continued to increase between 2006 and today, what becomes a real problem for most of the families in the USA.

Causes of this phenomenon

Consequences

The high price, necessary to enter universities, is a problem for students and their parents. Indeed, most of parents can’t pay these fees, or have difficulties in giving so much money for their children’s education.
More than that, students who come from the poor families, can’t really choose the university they want, because they are “forced” to go to the university close to their home, because they can’t pay for housing.

Solutions adopted

The government says that financial help for student has improved. But in facts, the direct federal aid has decreased in the last ten years.
The British government has decided to set a cap on tuition fees, that is to say a maximum, a limit on these fees.
However, most of parents will have to retire later than what they thought. More than that, some of them have to borrow money, or to pay off their mortgage longer than they expected.
A lot of students have to work, sometimes to take several jobs, to own enough money to pay for their education. Others have to come part-time to university.
In London, students had organised a campaign to protest against top-up fees.

III) Could you have the same system in France?

I don’t think adopting this system in France would be a good idea. The french system for education is not perfect, and most of the time students don’t hesitate in showing it, but we have the chance to be able to choose the university we want.
Of course, we have also elite universities or Schools, with a very expensive cost. But alternatives exist, and most of the time, people can go to other universities, cheaper, but offering a quite similar learning.
In France, to go to university, you need the baccalaureate, which is free. I’m afraid to see that to go to in some universities in the USA, you need to have and pass a test, and pay for it! So you pay before going to university, you pay to enter university, during your studies, and most of the time you pay after because students have to borrow money most of the time.
I don’t say that all the students in France can apply to university easily, but I think that we are luckier than the American and British students.

Bibliography indicative

Green, Andy, Education and state formation: the rise of education systems in England, France and the USA, 1990
Education for social citizenship: perceptions of teachers in the USA, Australia, England, Russia and China , edited by W. O. Lee and Jeffrey T. Fouts, 2005


What can Web 2.0 do for deliberative democracy?

Democracy and political practices have already gone a long way since the birth of Internet: online campaigns, online votes, speeches on videos that can be watched over and over on video-sharing websites… Internet has transformed the reality of the political bubble in many ways and nowadays, and since 2001, the web 2.0 has made a sensational breakthrough in our lives. It has changed again our habits to use the Internet: dotcoms turned being simple one way information resources into more functional and interactive where users concur to participate. From this perspective, ways of communicating are, from then on, boundless, and as Internet is spread all around the world and covers more than one household out of two, it gave us a new approach in the way we can reach people and arouse their interest.

Lower citizen involvement in politics: Can web 2.0 help?
In Europe, the turnout at the polls keeps decreasing as people feel left behind by politics. In 2009, 53% of European Union citizens stated that they were “not at all interested” or “rather not interested” in the EU elections. Indeed, turnout has decreased at every ballot since direct elections were first held in 1979. 2004 set the latest record, with a combined EU turnout of just 45.5% (). This major decrease happened despite an expensive promotional campaign and the increasing use of multimedia technology to spread awareness. The EU, as every political organism, is struggling to stimulate citizen interest, whether it uses NTIC or not.
Citizens feel left behind, all social classes feel abandoned, and politics loses credibility at a crazy rate, latest polls show. And it is a trite saying that in a free country public opinion rules.
As W. Lance Bennett says in his article Changing citizenship in the Digital age, “candidates seldom appeal directly to young voters on their own terms about their concerns, politicians have poisoned the public well (…) with vitriol and negative campaigning, and young people

Goldilocks politics: The Third Way

This text is an extract from The Economist, a weekly newspaper, published on 19th December 1998. The Economist is a newspaper supporting free trade and liberalism even if sometimes it can tend to be more moderate, so we can say that it is rather right of centre. The writer remains unknown so we are going to assume that it is a woman.

This text takes a critical point of view concerning the new policy implemented by Tony Blair, which is called the Third Way. It is divided into four main parts. The first part deals with a general presentation of New Labour showing what are the values advocated by the Third Way and its relationship with both the Old Labour and the Conservatives, and its foreign links. Then, it compares the Conservative Party to New Labour showing the differences between them and explaining that the Conservative Party was clearly defined by its ideology while New Labour is rather blurred and «Janus-like». Also, the writer carries on with revealing the ulterior motive of New Labour rather based on pragmatism. Finally, the text presents the belief of Tony Blair and his workmates (the Blairites) and criticizes the fact that they do not innovate in politics contrary to what they pretend and she also underlines their hypocrisy.

From 1979 to 1997, the Conservative Party of Margaret Thatcher and John Major had won four successive elections (1979, 1983, 1987 and 1992). Therefore, the Labour Party felt that it had to change to go back to power. Also, the Labour Party was reformed in 1992 during the Labour Party Conference in order to compete with the Conservative Party. Contrary to the usual left wings of the Old Labour advocating social justice with the implication of the whole community, the reform meant to move the party closer to the centre in order to win the middle class votes. In 1994, Tony Blair became the leader of the Labour Party and in 1997, he was elected Prime Minister. He was seen as the continuity of Margaret Thatcher’s main policy of liberalism and thus was considered by some inside the Labour Party as a traitor. Indeed, Tony Blair continued changing the mainstream of his party. Then, he participated in reforming the Labour Party into New Labour in 1994 and the Clause IV, adopted in 1918 by the Old Labour and advocating the “common ownership of the means of production”, was abandoned by the Labour Party in 1995. The newly created party now accepted and supported the market economy and reduced the state interventions in several sectors, policies formerly sustained by the Conservative Party of Margaret Thatcher. However, Tony Blair always explained that he did not follow Margaret Thatcher’s ideology but that he wanted to create a new conception of society which attempted at reconciling the market economy and economic efficiency with aspiration to social justice, called the Third Way.

This text having been written about one year and a half after Tony Blair had been elected Prime Minister of Great Britain, he and his followers trying to keep an equal distance from both ultraliberalism and collectivist socialism, we are going to see in a first part what was this policy called the Third Way and in which extent it politically kept distance from both main parties.

Then, after having described the mainstream of this new policy, we can wonder if the Third Way proposed by New Labour really created a new conception of society or if its blurred policy was just pragmatism advocated by its leader, a new strategy to win more votes from the British people, especially the middle class?

I)  The Third Way, a New Tendency?

1.1) Distancing from the Conservative Policy

1.1.1) A Changing Policy?

Tony Blair and the Blairites transformed within a couple of years not only the statutes and the political strategy of Labour, but also its public image. Then, the Third Way’s policy was to try keeping an equal distance from both ultraliberalism and collectivist socialism. For years the Labour Party had confronted the Conservatives and criticized its ideology. Now that they were moving towards the same policies, sustaining private enterprises and free economy, they needed first to take their distance not to be mixed up with the Conservatives thus to make clear what the distinctions were. Also, we can wonder why Tony Blair “himself has put his name to a Fabian society pamphlet” (l.21 to 22). Indeed, the fact that he attached his name to Britain’s leading centre-left think tank, a socialist movement, in 1993, that is to say one year before being elected leader of the Labour Party (1994) could appear as odd when we know what was to be his policy towards economy. But it could be assumed that he wrote for the Fabian society in order to be recognized by the left wings (thus to win more votes to be elected at the head of the Labour Party) as a fervent defender of human rights and socialism fitting into the scheme of the Labour Party.

Moreover, according to the writer, Blair accuses the Tory Party policies it did not follow by exaggerating its tendency and analyzing things in a way he could discredit it. Bringing lights on his newly created party, he claimed for example that contrary to New Labour, “the New Right treats ‘public investments and often the very notions of ‘society’ and collective endeavour as evils to be undone’” (l.89 to 91). This claim was to show that his party takes care of the social aspect of human beings as a community and society while the Conservatives “see people as atomized economic actors rather than social beings bound together” (l.109 to 111). According to Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher had completely wanted to destroy the state and the society by advocating “the wholesale dismantling of core state activity in the cause of ‘freedom’” (l.92 to 93). Notwithstanding, the writer criticizes what she thinks are wrong assumptions of Blair about the former Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher because “the Tory government left the state’s overall share of the economy virtually undiminished” (l.97 to 99). According to her, this criticism was “preposterous” (l.106) because, ironically, Tony Blair did not re-nationalize what the Tories had privatized so his criticism of what they have done could be seen as inappropriate. He criticized the Conservatives just to show that he was in opposition to them. Besides, the criticism about the very notion of society is a common use of Margaret Thatcher’s opponents about what she said. The writer emphasizes what she thinks is an easy attack from Blair and in that way should be shown in its real context. The writer thus provides us with a complete corpus of text, from line 115 to 124, which is the context in which Margaret Thatcher uttered this famous sentence.

1.1.2) A Significant Difference

In fact, one of the real aims of Tony Blair and his supporters was to convince the left wings of the Labour Party that they did not follow the Conservatives’ path in order to keep an internal cohesion. Fearing to be demonized by their own comrades from the Labour Party, Tony Blair and the Blairites of New Labour have “a strong sense of guilt about their move to the right” (l.209 to 210). Being pragmatic, they tried to attract as many people as possible inside the Labour Party, to pay attention to the distinction between the Third Way and the Conservative Party and then to subscribe to their policy  : “So a big part of the business of the Third Way consists of making up a story about what the Tories stand for which makes their Labour replacements look clearly different” (l.85 to 88). But for most of the people, this distinction was more and more difficult to perceive due to the fact that the economical aspect of society advocated by Tony Blair’s policy with his Third Way was almost identical to the one of Margaret Thatcher she had launched about two decades earlier.

Nevertheless, one major point which do not appear in the text, understandable if we consider the newspaper’s background, was implemented by Tony Blair and was to show a significant difference. Also, he could lean on this point to take distance from the Conservatives. This point was the reform of the Constitution, an area in which New Labour differed significantly from the Conservatives. Whereas the Conservatives, under Thatcher and Major, had always been against the decentralization of power, New Labour proposed a series of substantial reforms, once again in the name of modernization. A process of political decentralization (devolution) was to be implemented to transfer power from London to the capitals of the peripheral nations (Cardiff, Belfast and Edinburgh). Although this was the result of two decades of nationalist pressure, especially in Scotland, New Labour nonetheless made a commitment that the Conservatives had been more than unwilling to make. In Scotland, in late 1997, a referendum was held which resulted in a ‘yes’ vote. The Scottish Parliament had been created.

Although, through many ways, New Labour tried to differentiate from the Conservatives, virtually or openly, a more radical change in Labour policy has already occurred. It has been introduced by the Blairites, it was the revision of the Party’s attitudes to the Welfare State. Increasingly, New Labour seems to have come to believe that those primarily responsible for poverty and unemployment are the poor and the unemployed themselves, rather than calling into question the economic and social structures of capitalism like the Old Labour.

1.2) Distancing from the Old Labour

1.2.1) A Break with the Left wings

This change of vantage point has particularly been striking as regards the private sector. Labour had shown that it is now relying on the private sector to modernize the public service. Its new policy lent on a “public-private partnership” (l.180) and it carried on the Conservative policy by distancing from the Trade Unions and creating a regime of competition allowing to fire people considered as bad : “he refuses to equate the interests of the welfare state’s consumers with the interests of its workers, whom he has already begun to antagonize by creating a regime of inspectors to weed out bad teachers, social workers and doctors.” (l.171 to 175). Indeed, a priority of New Labour has been the reform of the public services by applying to them the rules of the market economy, so as to deliver high quality service. New Labour has for example, extended the Conservatives programme called the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) with a view to encouraging injection of private capitals into public sectors, such as health care. The failing industries were closed, there were lower tax rates and a more flexible market, competitivity being more and more forced. This competitivity entered schools and hospitals. Such a move was a reflection of New Labour pragmatism, that is, the adoption of the maxim “what matters is what works” (l.240), or, what counts is what delivers the best results. In the same perspective, the government has started to reform the NHS by allowing the best hospitals (termed Foundation Hospitals) in terms of performance to acquire greater financial autonomy in their management and to introduce a new system allowing them to recruit the best doctors.

In addition, Tony Blair, accused the Old Labour of not being efficient enough. In fact, the radical break the Blairites wanted was not only with the past but above all with the Left who was held responsible for Labour’s loss of political credibility in the 1980′s. Tony Blair tends to advocate pragmatism, used earlier by the Conservatives, by cutting down the public expenditures : “Mr Blair says that the Old Left championed indiscriminate and often ineffective public spending, but that the Third Way concentrates on making sure that the spending produces the desired result” (l.62 to 66).

Furthermore, New Labour has distanced itself from the trade unions, weakening its links with them and trying to follow an independent course. Tony Blair declared from the start that he promises fairness but not favours for employers and employees alike. He made clear that the unions should expect no more influence on the Labour Government than the employers. He wished to put an end to the image of the Labour Party as the representative of exclusively the interests of organized workers. According to him, New Labour should be regarded as the party of all Britons, middle classes included, a party governing for the whole country. Secondly, as he sees it, the unions should no longer be allowed to hamper the working of Britain’s industry by their repeated strikes. That has of course, earned Tony Blair and New Labour much criticism from trade union circles. The Trade Union Congress (TUC) expected New Labour to lead a left-wing policy. On the contrary, the dominance of the block vote at the annual conference has been reduced, so that union influence now represents 50% of the vote, as opposed to 80% previously. Likewise, the Thatcher legislation on trade unionism has been preserved. At last, the unions have been asked to modernize and warned that the days of industrial warfare and strikes without ballots were over. Indeed, they have been told that the class war was over, the view that the relationship between employer and employees should necessarily be one of conflict is outdated, now is the time of negotiations.

1.2.2) Education and Security : A Public-Private Partnership

Labour’s ideological evolution has also been conspicuous in two other fields, education and security. As regards education New Labour has become converted to many of the liberal policies Old Labour used to criticize at the time when they were implemented by the Conservatives. Such notions as performance, cost effectiveness, selection and use of private funding have been introduced in the sector : “government co-operation with the Wellcome Foundation, a charity, to invest in public research laboratories; and an invitation to private firms to help raise school standards in designated ‘education action zones’” (l.181 to 185). The Blair Government is thus favouring, to the detriment of comprehensive schools, specialist schools, in which private funding and selection of recruits are predominant  On the other hand, it has been decided that teachers will henceforward be promoted according to their merit or performance. More importantly, if the performance of an establishment proves unsatisfactory, the private sector can now be resorted to in order to improve the management. This is a further example of the abandonment of old values. As in the case of the PFI, the private sector is no longer seen as socially harmful thanks to its interest in profit, it is also considered as an efficient tool.
In the field of security, the fight against crime and insecurity had for years been associated with the policies of the Conservatives. As for the Labour Party, it was seen as indulgent towards criminals because it favoured prevention punishment. In the 1990′s, determined to become an effective electoral machine, New Labour made clear to the public that a Labour Government would fight crime and insecurity with the utmost severity. Delinquency would be stopped, it was promised. Labour, not the Conservatives, was to be the party of law and order in Britain in the future, because, it was explained, crime and delinquency aggravate poverty. The Crime and Disorder Act of 1998 was an illustration of this change in policies. Introducing very repressive measures, it was meant to put in practice the strategy known as zero tolerance : it was directed at anti-social behaviour in the streets of large cities, more particularly, at juvenile delinquency. Labour now places centre-stage punishment of crime, as well as the right of the community to expect more responsible and less anti-social behaviour from its citizens. However, New Labour’s objective is to strike a balance between sanction and prevention.

Labour’s ideological reorientation has resulted in advocating the necessity to reduce state intervention in the economy and, consequently to keep a tight grip on public spending and taxation as opposed to the Old Labour’s policy of «tax and spend», that is to say to tax the higher earners to spend money in the public sectors for social benefits. Then, the Third Way “means something in between the nation state (too small to cope with some problems) and a super-state (too big and too remote)” (l.36 to 38). New Labour proclaimed its conviction of the benefits of competition and the private sector, as well as its acceptance of profit as motor of private enterprise and thus asserting its new belief in individual rather than collective initiative.

II)  A blurred policy

2.1) A Lack of ideology?

2.1.1) The Third Way’s Essence

In the first part of the text, the writer explains through criticism what is New Labour and shows that other countries such as Germany, with the German chancellor Gerhard Schröder, takes account of the Third Way. Moreover, we can see in the text that strong ties unite New Labour of Tony Blair and Social Democrats. Actually, New Labour was inspired by the Democrats from the United States and its leader at that time Bill Clinton, president of the United States from 1992 to 2001. Also, the writer does not hesitate to ironically introduce this link between the two parties from different countries : “the core ideas of the Third Way sound rather familiar” (l.51 to 53). This sentence aims at underlying the influence of the American Third Way on the Labour Party. Then, Tony Blair’s “new deal” (l.250) is also said to be “originated with America’s Republicans” (l.249) by the writer. She shows in many ways the influence that had the American policy on Tony Blair’s one and depicts in this text the compromise the British Prime Minister accepts between the “dynamic market of America” and the “social cohesion of Western Europe” (l.208 to 210). According to the writer, this sounds as an impossible task mixing up different ideologies which seem not to be compatible with each other : “they want to believe that none of these wants clashes with any other” (l.211 to 212).
Moreover, after having presented New Labour as not being the party of innovation, a part of its programme being based on a foreign country, the writer also criticizes the fact that the descriptions of New Labour by Tony Blair remain “at an unhelpful level of generalization” (l.31 to 32). Then, she criticizes that he doesn’t take a clear line like the two main usual parties, a line that is called ideology, the Old Labour defending socialism and the Conservatives defending liberalism. Therefore, she criticizes the fact that the Third Way of Tony Blair is not clear enough and that it is only a strategy of politicians trying to explain it while it supports no sagacious ideologies at all. She describes it as a “fog of generalities” (l.49). Incidentally, a funny table called “Ways and words” (l.181) is given on the second page which shows the differences between specific words or ideas representing the Third Way in opposition to those traditionally representing the Right and the Left. It depicts for instance that when the Right tends to represent the “Bosses” and the Left the “Workers”, the Third Way rather tends to represent the “Consumers”. This is reciprocally the same idea with a “Small government” for the Right, a “Big government” for the Left and a “Clever government” for the Third Way. It also shows the distinction Tony Blair and New Labour want to make between them and both the Old Labour and the Conservatives.

Besides, to emphasize her idea, the writer put into confrontation Margaret Thatcher’s party to Blair’s one. Also, she explains that Mrs. Thatcher dared to go against the tendency which prevailed before that is to say the consensus on which the two main parties had agreed about the social and economical life of the British citizens since 1945. Thatcher represented the break with the past : “from the beginning it possessed one big idea – shrink the sate so as to enlarge the space available for private choice and enterprise. It was all the more striking because it ran counter to the prevailing consensus” (l.143 to 147). She completely went forward this by affirming her ideology while Tony Blair has no clear and defined ideology, taking some ideas from every parties, his self-interest being based on the election of 1997, that is to say to win as many votes as possible. The criticism here is about the fact that Tony Blair hides his real ambition to the people in order to be re-eligible and not to clash with them. Then, to Tony Blair, the society has changed economically and the old manichean idea that workers are always fighting against the owners is past. It is all now “’about traditional values in a changed world’” (l.41 to 42) he said. Indeed, after four electoral defeats in a row, some in the Labour Party thought that Labour had lost touch with economic reality, that its socialism was outdated. The other problem was that Tony Blair did not choose a clear policy and “does not want to continue Thatcherism’s crusade against the state, nor does he seek to reverse it” (l. 201 to 203).

2.1.2) Pragmatism

In fact, from 1979 to 1997, the Conservatives had extended the principles of economic liberalism to all sectors of British economic and social life. Labour, therefore, had to adapt to the new economic environment and accept the market economy. To achieve this, the modernizer, with Tony Blair leading a prominent role, set about purging the party of some of its socialist traditions. The conversion of Labour to the laws of market and the values of the culture of enterprise was signaled by the abandonment of the Old socialist dogma contained in clause 4 of the constitution. It was a dramatic break with the past, as the party thus turned its back on nationalization. On the contrary, the new clause 4 insisted on the positive nature of the market, which was associated, not any longer with social and justice, as in the past, but with notion of initiative and rigour. Since this decision, Labour has consistently rejected calls for renationalization of sectors privatized by the Conservatives. In that way, highlighting this particular feature, the writer shows that the Blairites’ policy is rather hypocritical and opportunistic because trying to disguise its policy : “In striving to do what the voters want, the Third Way frees policymakers from the need to place every decision on a left-right spectrum, or inside any other ideological scheme” (l.234 to 239). In fact, the aim of the Blairites was to modernize the Old Labour Party to break with the dogmas and the doctrine of the past and to make New Labour into a party capable once again of winning elections.

The purpose of such a radical ideological change has been to move Labour towards the centre of the political spectrum in order to win over the middle classes. Of course, such an election-oriented strategy has severely been criticized by the party’s leftwing. It has been argued that modernization and the adoption of economic realism meant ideological surrender to liberalism. Labour, critics have continued, has broken with its historic quest for social justice for electoral reasons. It is no longer the protector of the underprivileged. Tony Blair and his followers in the Labour Party answer that none of this is true. The Labour Party, they contend, has kept its social-democratic goals. Far from having been shaped by Thatcherism, New Labour’s policies, they maintain, should be seen as a reaction to it, as ushering in a fundamental change, the Blair revolution. Far from denying it, Tony Blair and his followers claim that they have changed the socialist ideology of Labour. They do admit that they have come to accept the fact that capitalism and the market economy have conquered the world. They contend that, on account of that, the old opposition between socialism and capitalism has become outdated. Ideological conflicts must now give way to peaceful pragmatism : “The Third Way, Mr. Blair told the French Assembly helpfully, is whatever works.” (l.239 to 242). It is no longer a matter of struggling against the market economic and the business world, but of functioning within them well while mastering their negative effects.

2.2) A New Conception of Society?

2.2.1) Tory Values

In order for this to happen, New Labour has put forward the notion of the Third Way. The Third Way aims at reconciling the market economy and economic efficiency with aspiration to social justice. And it is said to keep an equal distance from both ultra liberalism and collectivist socialism. However, most emblematic of the Third Way has been the drastic reform of the Welfare State launching by New Labour in the field of unemployment. Under the Welfare State, the unemployed were given unemployment benefits without having to do anything in return. To Tony Blair and New Labour, that had to be changed because it encouraged a culture of dependency among the population, as unemployed people expected their means of subsistence from the state, not from their own efforts to seek work. It was very expensive for the state, while not being cost effective, as those assisted were unproductive. The idea was to do away with the culture of dependency by providing those able to work with a professional activity. The objective consisted in building an economy in which all citizens would participate in the production of national wealth. But this idea was not new. It had been implemented by Margaret Thatcher, based on old Victorian values making the distinction between the deserving and the undeserving poor, because she believed “in people taking responsibility for themselves instead of expecting the state to look after them.” (l. 8 to 10). However, the hypocrisy of the Blairites is widely criticized by the writer who explains that “The idea that a party can reverse its policy ideas but cling to its underlying values is arresting. Policies that were base when they sprang from Tory values (greed, worship of the market) become suddenly precious when reprocessed through the alchemy of Labour’s higher purpose (altruism, community).” (l.328 to 335). This highlights Tony Blair’s hypocrisy because he does not accept to say that he follows Tory values while it is the case.

The introduction of such an economy was expected to put an end to social exclusion and bring about social integration and cohesion. This involved a clear definition of the rights and duties of both the state and the citizens. The state main duty was no longer to intervene in the economy, another policy from the Conservatives who had “tried to stop the state from growing” (l.95 to 96), but to fight against poverty and exclusion by providing the unemployed with opportunities to work, to fight against long-term unemployment. The citizens’ main duty consisted in seeking and accepting work or training in order to earn a living and become independent. Therein lay their responsibility to the community. To New Labour, the community and the individuals are related to each other to a system of rights and duties.

2.2.2) The Welfare-to-Work Programme

In order to put these principles into practice, New Labour has launched what is termed the Welfare-to-Work programme. It is meant to enable people no longer to depend on benefits but on work for their subsistence through various measures. It was known under the name of “new deal” (l.250). It aims to put unemployed young people aged from 18 to 25 back onto the labour market by offering them a training opportunity, or the possibility of working in the private or associative or environment sectors. As any individual is now supposed to meet their responsibilities to the community, the scheme provides for sanction against uncooperative citizens. Should they refuse to take up opportunities for work or training, their unemployment benefits would be suspend.

A further measure consists in a system of tax credit for poor working families, the working family Tax Credit. At last, financial encouragement to work is provided for single mothers and the handicapped should they be willing to do so. The new measures were expected to save the welfare state by modernizing it. Under New Labour, the state was supposed to protect the poor and underprivileged not to assistance, as under Old Labour, but to a system aiming to eradicate poverty by providing opportunities to work. The fight for greater equality has become a fight for equal opportunities and social inclusion. The setting up of a social exclusion unit, in charge of tackling poor housing estate street homelessness and truancy should be seen as an illustration of an emphasis laid on inclusion. The measures are also being used to allow the reorienting of funds. The unemployment benefits saved.

Into the education and health sectors that is indeed how New Labour defines its long-term strategy : “why the continued ritualistic hostility to private schools and private medicine?” (l.195 to 196). Targeted provision in welfare benefits coupled with universal provision of health and education. As regards education, Tony Blair sees it as a key instrument in successful economic policy, as well as in attaining the goal of equal opportunities for the poorest. To emphasis the fact that it was a priority spending in his eyes, he has declared his government at three priorities “education, education and education”1.

In a nutshell, Tony Blair’s policy was to try keeping an equal distance from both ultraliberalism and collectivist socialism. He declared that he did not follow Margaret Thatcher’s policy, who had been widely criticized at the end of her term for her ‘Poll Tax’ and her strong policy against Trade Unions, in order to keep cohesion inside his own party. He also kept distance from the Old Labour because of what could be considered by some of the middle class as a radical social ideology in order to win further elections. For this purpose, Tony Blair had understood that he had to attract the centre-left and the middle class votes. He wanted the people to see his party as an avant-gardist one which was the first to follow this path, the Third Way, and which symbolized the social and economic evolution of the British society so the future of all Britons.

Nevertheless, from 1979 to 1997, the Conservatives had extended the principles of economic liberalism to all sectors of British economic and social life. That had profound influence on the Labour Party. Since 1992, Old Labour had been forced to modernize if it wanted to win further election. It was transformed into New Labour and has now become a left-of-centre party, one fighting not against capitalism and for socialism, but against conservatism, of left and right. Then, Tony Blair was criticized for his pragmatism and hypocrisy, considering his blurred policy which did not defend any clear ideology.

But, Tony Blair was to win the elections in 2001 and 2005. New Labour overall strategy had been highly successful. One reason is that, at the turn of the century, New Labour established itself as a new party for the numerous middle classes, who approved of the pursuit of liberal policies which do not endangered the social status quo. In addition, leftwing militants and voters, in their majority, though some of them have raised harsh criticism, have remained attached to Labour.

Finally, the reference to Goldilocks in the title of The Economist, while rather critical, is based on the assumption that Blair and his new party are like Goldilocks who tests three different plates, chairs and beds before choosing the best for her. Blair’s hollowness policy which is criticized in the text and the fact that his policy is blurred could be interpreted in the way that he tries to choose the best for him thus for his party, what is called pragmatism, by testing different policies from both left and right in order to please as many people as possible amongst the voters.

Bibliography :

Peter John and Pierre Lurbe, Civilisation Britannique : Hachette supérieur, 2006
Rodney Lowe, The Welfare State in Britain since 1945 Third Edition : Palgrave Macmillan, ffffffff  2005

Webography :

BBC
11BBC.co.uk